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/ 



TREATISE 


ON 


EMBALMING • 


INCLUDING 


A FULL AND CONCISE DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS TO 
BE EMPLOYED FOR THE PRESERVATION OF THE 
HUMAN BODY AFTER DEATH , BY CHEM¬ 
ICAL OR OTHER KNOWN PROCESSES; 


TOGETHER WITH A FULL DESCRIPTION OF CHEMICALS EMPLOYED IN 
EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES, BY THE MOST EMINENT CHEM¬ 
ISTS AND PROFESSORS; ALSO, SUCH ANATOMICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL 
AND CHEMICAL FACTS, AS ARE NECESSARY TO BE UNDERSTOOD, 
IN ORDER THAT SCIENTIFIC MANIPULATIONS MAY BE FULLY CAR¬ 
RIED OUT. 


f 


M. LESS LEY. 


BY 



TOLEDO, OHIO: 
Barkdull Printing House. 
1884. 








. 1 - 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1884, 
By M. Lrsslky, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 






1. Temporal Artery. 

2. External Carotid Artery. 

3. Internal Jugular Vein. 

4. Subclavian Artery. 

5. Subclavian Vein. 

6. Axillary Vein. 

7. Axillary Artery. 

9. L u n g. 

11 & 15. Ascending (inferior) 
Vena Cava. 

13. Brachial Artery. 

14. Liver, with Branches of 

Hepatic Artery. 

16. Radial Artery. 

17. Ulnar Artery. 

18. Descending (superior) Vena 

Cava. 

19. Common Iliac Artery. 

20. Internal Iliac Artery. 

21 External Iliac Artery. 

22. Pouparts Ligament. 

23. Iliac Vein. 

24. Femoral Vein. 

25. Profunda Femoris Artery. 

26. Femoral Artery. 

27. Facial Artery. 

28. Internal Carotid Artery. 

29. External Jugular Vein. 

30. Common Carotid Artery. 

33. Arch of Aorta. 

34. Pulmonary A.rtery. 

35. Cephalic Vein. 

36. Thoracic Aorta. 

38. Stomach. 

39. Basilic Vein. 

40. Abdominal Aorta. 

41. Section of Intestines. 

42. Saphenous Vein. 




36 


16 



































































DR. ROBERT KOCH, 




LEARNED SPECIALIST IN CHOLERA AND PRESIDENT OF THE INTER¬ 
NATIONAL CHOLERA COMMISSION. 


News of the outbreak of cholera at Toulon, France, in June of 
this year, created alarm throughout the civilized world. Unfor¬ 
tunately the sanitary condition of the city was so bad as to assist 
the spread of the disease, to which many persons have alread}’ 
fallen victims. At an early period of the outbreak, Dr. Koch, 
who had been engaged to report on it, expresstd the opinion that 
the pestilence could not be confined to France, but that it would 
spread into other countries. This statement by an authority of 
the first eminence, intensified popular excitement, as it may now 
seem at first glance unnecessarily, for there are indications that 
probably the cholera has done its worst in Europe this summer; 
but the zeal to adopt every practicable means to prevent the 
spread of the disease, which his words provoked, may be the 
chief reason why the outlook is more favorable than appeared 
possible only a short time ago. 

Dr. Robert Koch is a German who has made cholera the 
special subject of his study. His researches as to its nature and 
origin have been made in India and Egypt, with the results 
which give him unrivalled distinction in the branch of investiga¬ 
tion which he has followed. Moreover, the German Government 
has rewarded him munificently for his labors, in the shape of a 
large sum of money. France, in her alarm, casting away national 
prejudice, called upon the learned German to advise what should 
be done to save her people from the deadly plague of cholera. 







MONS. PASTEUR, 


THE EMINENT CHEMIST OF FRANCE. 











INDEX 


Page. 

Introduction . 3 

The Arterial System. 7 

The Digestive Organs. . 9 

The Organs of Respiration..... 10 

Analysis of the Human Body.... 11 

Animal Chemistry... 14 

Animal Matter—Diseased and Putrid. 31 

Animal Matter—Preservation and Putrefaction. 33 

The Rapid Decay of the Human Structure .. 36 

Death.......: . 39 

Different Modes of Death. 43 

Appearance of the Body from Different Causes of Death. 51 

Toxicology.. .. . 54 

Post Mortem Examinations.. .. 69 

Morbid Poison and Disinfectants. 71 

Contagion by Contact ... 79 

Dangers Arising from Handling the Dead.. 82 

Practices Which Must be Abolished. 84 

Forensic Medicine. ... .•. .. . 85 

The Rigor Mortis. 88 

Burying Alive. . 90 

Disinfecting Properties of Acids. 95 

The Laboratory. 100 

State of Body after Death .. 101 

Reaching the Arteries. 102 

Pi’eservation of Animal Matter. 104 

Preservation of Bodies. 108 

Embalming as a Science. 115 

Gaseous Compounds in Embalming. US 

Chemical Embalming Process, and Deodorizing Agents. 120 

Embalming and Preservation of Bodies, also Ingredients for same . 124 

Mode of Shipping Embalmed Bodies to Distant Countries. 149 

Review of the Lessons on Embalming. 152 









































INTRODUCTION. 


n presenting this book to the profession, the author thought 
it advisable to give to the embalmers and medical students 
all the practical advice, sound sense and all information 
which was possible to be obtained, on physiology, animal 
chemistry, anatomy, etc. This is principally from the writings 
and publications of Messrs. Augustus Renouard and W. W. Ball, 
both eminent chemists in the United States. 

The more closely these pages are studied, the more satisfac¬ 
tory will be the knowledge gleaned by the student; and if any 
individual supposes he can master the details without laborious 
application, he may as well stop before beginning, for he will 
spend his time and strength in vain. The study of the facts 
herein contained, will be for the student not only interesting but 
really fascinating. The author has also given herein the pro¬ 
cesses of chemical embalming and the preservation of dead 
human bodies, with the different ingredients of fluids used, not 
onl} r in this country, but also in Great Britain, France, Italy and 
Germany, from the experience of facts obtained by the most 
eminent professional chemists and embalmers; also, all the re¬ 
sults from experiments made, how they acted upon the different 
\ 

systems, etc. 

We must take up the study of embalming if we would build it 
up, for with study and observation only, can the student hope to 
be successful; for it is true that much is yet to be accomplished, 
and if we would hope to overcome difficulties, we must bring 
every feature of this into the more desirable shape of an exact 
science. The object is to instruct, as well as to create interest 
in the profession, by developing scientific facts which are neces¬ 
sary to promote the avocation of a funeral director to the rank 
which it deservedly ought to occupy. Some of the chapters 
which may seem superfluous are all essential to a clear under¬ 
standing of the different processes of embalming and preserving 



























4 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


dead bodies; had these been left out, it would have been a 
puzzle to many. It was also found necessary to elucidate the 
modus operandi of each process by giving reasons for the use of 
the chemicals, their mode of action and the results to be expected 
by a careful use of them. The quantities of the chemicals to be 
used must be left entirely to the good judgment of the operator; 
this can only be obtained by good practice and close watching, 
but to satisfy the investigating propensities of all, the nature or 
properties of the different chemicals used have been explained 
at length. 

The chapter devoted to anatomy, the arterial circulation and 
the different parts of the human structure, will be found indis- 
pensible and when properly understood will greatly facilitate the 
work of the operator. If the embalmer be ignorant of the loca¬ 
tions of the different organs, the courses of the veins and arteries, 
their relations and positions, how can he find the point of in¬ 
jection and go on successfully with his work ? It is necessary 
for him to have this knowledge to accomplish his task so that he 
may know with any degree of certainty when the process of 
injecting is complete, and that the parts intended have been 
reached by the fluid. 

Allied to the above are the conditions of the body after death, 
as governed by circumstances which may affect and thereby 
modify the treatment thereof, as different modes of treatment 
are required in different cases. How can the operator discrim¬ 
inate, if he is not warned beforehand, in case his knowledge does 
not teach him what course to follow, and this knowledge can 
only be obtained by making it a point to study at least that 
part of the human organism with which he may have to deal. 

As the different processes given herein for embalming and 
preserving human bodies are founded upon practical experiments, 
it becomes then necessary that the principles be fully explained. 
What has been said about anatomy applies also as well to the 
study of animal chemistry. The constituents of the human 
body, fluid and solid, have all more or less different properties, 
their composition varies also to a great extent. Therefore it is 
a point of material importance to know and understand their 
formation, the causes which may lead to their decay or putre¬ 
faction, and also the means which may be employed to the best 
advantage to counteract their tendency to disintegration. 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


5 


It may also be useful to repeat here certain injunctions as to 
the dangers to be encountered in the handling of the dead and 
also of the proper care to be exercised in avoiding to rush heed¬ 
lessly into danger and aggravate the perils of themselves. The 
embalmer, and the perils attending in many instances the dis¬ 
charge of his duties as a general thing, are very seldom thought 
of by those outside of the profession. To a great many this bus¬ 
iness has something dreadful about it. This impression is alto¬ 
gether an erroneous one, which ought to be eradicated from pub¬ 
lic sentiment. Embalmers, as a class, are men useful to society, 
their calling, far from being horrible, as the ignorant and shallow 
minded are pleased to call it, is one which requires a great deal 
of self denial, and which often brings to the surface the finest 
traits of human nature. It is incumbent upon professionals to 
protect themselves against contagion by all means that know¬ 
ledge, experience and science may suggest. One great mistake, 
and one which has been repeated too often is, the false security 
some may place in the use of strong liquors to combat and ren¬ 
der void the effects of contagion. This has been a stumbling 
block to many. We here safely assert that a great many of our 
professionals have fallen victims to the effects of alcohol, which, 
being used at first as a sort of medical preventative, soon assumes 
full control over the mind, and bailies their best efforts to resist 
it. If we are to look anywhere for a preventative of contagion 
and infection, we must look to the directions and remedies which 
medical science holds in store; and also the undisputable fact, 
that in the caution used and the care exercised in handling 
bodies, assisted by a discriminating judgment, lies our best 
pledges of safety. All the known modes of embalming and pre¬ 
serving bodies, known to be good and reliable, and found to have 
given entire satisfaction, have been given; there are other meth¬ 
ods which may be good, but until they are found by actual and 
practical experiments to be worthy the merits claimed for them, 
they cannot be made public at present. 

The author also expresses his many thanks for the kindness of 
Dr. W. C. Chapman, Professor of Materia Medica and Thera¬ 
peutics, in Northwestern Ohio Medical College of this city, in 
making valuable suggestions during the preparation of the work. 










THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM. 


To understand thoroughly the process of embalming, it will be 
necessary to give here a brief explanation of the circulatory sys¬ 
tem; also to explain the position of the different parts of the 
viscera. 

The arteries commence from the great arterial trunk, called 
the aorta, and their branches are distributed to all parts of the 
system; they are dense in structure, and preserve for the most 
part their cylindrical form when emptied of their blood, which is 
their condition after death. 

The aorta arises from the left ventricle, at the middle of the 

root of the heart; it ascends at first forwards and to the right, 

> 

then curves backwards and to the left, and descends on the left 
side of the vertebral column to the fourth lumbar vertebra; here 
it is divided into the arch and descending aorta. 

It should be here remembered that most of the branches, which 
spring from the great artery and vein are double, that is, each 
right branch has a corresponding one on the left side—so that 
there are for instance, the right and left carotid arteries, the 
right and left jugular veins, etc. From the arch of the aorta 
are sent off those arteries which are distributed to the head and 
arms; the principal ones among these are named as follows: 
The carotid artery, which ascends in the side of the neck and 
divides into the temporal artery, which is distributed in the tem¬ 
ple, and the facial artery which supplies the face, and also sends, 
a branch called the internal carotid to the parts within the skull. 
The sub olavinn artery lying beneath the clavicle or collar bone— 
that part of the continuation of their artery which passes through 
the axilla or arm pit, is called the axilliary artery; its continua¬ 
tion in the upper part of the arm, the brachial artery; and in the 
fore arm it divides into the radial and ulnar arteries, which are 
distributed to the hands and fingers. 



8 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


The principal branches of the descending aorta are as follows: 
The iliac artery, which on passing into the thigh becomes the 
femoral artery, ahd in the leg divides into the tibial and peroneal 
arteries, which form numerous branches for the supply of the leg 
and foot. 

Before dividing into the iliac arteries the descending aorta 
gives off several important branches, as the coeliac artery, from 
which the stomach and liver are supplied; the renal artery, which 
goes to the kidne} 7 s, and the mesenteric artery to the intestines; 
besides many other sub-divisions in various parts of its course. 

The Veins. —The veins are the vessels which return the blood 
to the heart, after it has been circulated by the arteries through 
the different tissues of the body; they are much thinner in struc¬ 
ture than the arteries, so that when emptied of their blood, they 
become flattened and collapsed. 

The veins of the trunk may be divided into the superior vena 
cava with its formative branches, and the inferior vena cava with 
its branches also. 

The superior vena cava is formed by the junction of the right 
and left vena innominata; it is a short trunk about three inches 
in length; it descends perpendicularly on the right side of the 
arch of the aorta, and terminates in the upper part of the right 
auricle of the heart. The right vena innominata receives the 
veins of the neck, which return the blood from the head as fol¬ 
lows: The internal, external and anterior jugular veins. The 
external jugular vein being the one which is ordinarily open to 
let out the extravasated blood from the head—it will not be a 
miss to describe its course. It descends the neck in the direc¬ 
tion of a line drawn from the angle of the lower jaw to the mid¬ 
dle of the collar bone, and terminates into the sub clavian vein; 
it is variable in size, and replaced by two veins. The sub clavian 
vein becomes the axillary vein near the arm pit, and opens into 
•the brachial veins down to the bend of the elbow, where it is 
divided into several branches which supply the fore arm and the 
hand. 

The inferior vena cava is formed by the union of the two com¬ 
mon iliac veins; it ascends along the front of the vertebral 
column or back bone, and passing through the fissure in the pos¬ 
terior border of the liver, terminates in the inferior part of the 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


9 


right auricle of the heart. Its branches are the lumbar veins, 
three or four in number, which collect the blood from the mus¬ 
cles and integuments of the loins and spinal veins; the renal 
veins, which return the blood from the kidneys, and the hepatic 
vein in the liver. 

The common iliac veins, which, by their union form the infe¬ 
rior vena cava, are in turn formed by the union of the internal 
and external iliac veins; the external iliac vein passing into the 
thigh becomes the femoral vein, and is found in the same sheath 
with the femoral artery; further below it becomes the popliteal 
vein; about one inch and a half below Popart’s ligament or groin 
in the upper part of the thigh, the femoral vein receives the 
internal saphenous vein, which commences at the inner side of 
the foot and great toe; it ascends in front of the inner ankle and 
along the inner side of the leg; it then passes behind and along 
the inner side of the thigh to the saphenous opening, where it 
pierces the sheath of the femoral vessels and terminates as above 
stated, in the femoral vein. 

The above explanation of the circulatory blood vessels is given 
for the—right side. The branch vessels, the aorta and the vena 
cava on the left side are the same, with very slight modifications. 


DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 


The (Esophagus is a slightly flexuous canal, inclining to the 
left in the neck, and to the right in the upper part of the thorax; 
it commences at the termination of the pharynx, which is a mus¬ 
culo membranous sac, about four inches in length, and commu¬ 
nicating with the cavity of the nose and mouth; the oesophagus 
then passes behind the arch of the aorta to the oesophagal open¬ 
ing in the diaphragam, where it enters the abdomen and termin¬ 
ates into the stomach. 

The stomach in man is an oblong, membranous bag, placed 
obliquely across the abdomen and just below the diaphragm; its 
average capacity in the adult is about one quart; it has two 
openings, one towards the heart called the cardiac orifice , which 
receives the food from the oesophagus, and the other at the right 




10 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


or small end of the stomach, called the pyloric orifice, for the 
transmission of food to the small intestines. 

The small intestines, about twenty five feet in length, are coil 
ed in various directions and terminate into the large intestine, 
called the colon, which is about five feet in length and resembles 
in appearance a long sac divided into numerous pouches. 

The pancreas is a long narrow gland, situated partly behind 
the right side of the stomach, and within the first curve of the 
small intestines. 

The liver is the largest gland in the body; it is situated on 
the right side, below, and in contact with the diaphragam, and is 
divided into several lobes. At its lower side is the gall bladder , 
into which the bile is poured after being secreted. Its duct 
opens into the duct leading direct from the liver, and forms with 
it the common bile duct, through which the bile is poured into 
the small intestine, at the same point with the duct from the 
pancreas, until at length, it is carried with the food into the 
larger intestine or colon, from whence it is excreted from the 
system through the rectum. 


ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 


The lungs are supplied with air, through the larynx and tra¬ 
chea. The larynx is an irregular cartilaginous tube, forming the 
upper part of the wind-pipe, as the wholy tube is generally call¬ 
ed. The larynx is situated immediately below the root of the 
tongue, and forms the protuberance in the front part of the neck, 
called Adam’s apple. 

The trachea, which is a continuation of the larynx, is compos¬ 
ed of about eighteen cartilaginous rings, connected together so 
as to form a tube, which is capable of maintaining a uniform 
size. On entering the chest, the trachea divides into two trunks, 
called bronchi, one of which goes to the right and the other to 
the left lung. As soon as the bronchi enter the lungs, they 
branch off into numerous divisions and sub-divisions; their ulti¬ 
mate extremities terminate in air cells. 

The lungs occupy the greater part of the chest, the heart being 
the organ of much volume which it includes in it. 




TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 11 

The chest or thorax is a cavitv closed on all sides from the en- 
trance of air, and its bony walls afford an admirable protection 
to the delicate organs included within it. The walls of the 
thorax are formed by the breast bone in front, by the ribs and 
spine on the side and back, and by the diaphragm below. 

The diaphragm is a large muscular partition which separates 
the chest from the abdomen. 

The explanations given herein, as also the arterial and venous 
circulation, upon the names, places, and relations of the abdom¬ 
inal and thoracic visera, will be found of the utmost importance 
to understand fully the process of embalming. 

Although briefly enunciated, this review of the anatomy of the 
parts of the human body which the embalmer must be convers¬ 
ant with, will be found quite sufficient for the purpose. It was 
necessary that the names of the different organs mentioned in 
this work should be explained, so as to make the use of the tech¬ 
nical words comprehensive to every undertaker, who is not now 
supposed to be familiar with the terms of the dissecting room of 
the human organism in general. 


ANALYSIS OF THE HUMAN BODY. . 


Flesh. —If we take a portion of the flesh of a man and examine 
it by chemical analysis, we find it consists principally of four 
elements, which are found commonly in the things which sur¬ 
round us in this world. These four elements are called the or¬ 
ganic elements, because they are universally found present in 
plants and animals, which are called organic beings, on account 
of which they carry on their life. The names given to these four 
elements are Carbon , Hydrogen , Oxygen and Nitrogen. 

Carbon is the only one of the four elements that is solid at the 
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. In its impure form, we 
know it by name of charcoal or coni, but in one of its pure forms 
it constitutes the diamond. When carbon combines with oxygen 
it forms a gas called carbonic acid. It is said that a human 
body weighing 15If pounds , contains 21 pounds of carbon.* 

Hydrogen. —That element is a gas. It is the lightest body 
known in nature. Hydrogen unites with carbon and forms the 




12 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


gas which is burned to light our streets and houses. When 
hydrogen burns in the oxygen of the air, vapor of water is form¬ 
ed; thus water is oxygen and hydrogen. In the human body 
weighing 154 pounds there are 14 pounds of hydrogen. 

Oxygen is a gas, and one of the most active elements. In 
nature it unites with other elements and causes them to burn by 
flame or the process of slow combustion (oxydization.) It enters 
largely into all compounds of the human system, and a body 
weighing 154 pounds, contains 111 pounds of oxygen. 

Nitrogen is also a gas. It is by itself far less active as a 
chemical agent than the other three. A body weighing 154 
pounds contains only about 3 1-2 pounds of nitrogen; but it is 
just as important to life, as it combines with the other elements 
to give chemical action. 

There are also about If pounds of other elements. These con¬ 
sist principally of metals, calcium, sodium, potassium and iron. 
In the human body of the above weight there are 1 pound and 
12 ounces of phosphorus and 2 pounds of calcium. This last is a 
metal of which the earth lime is an oxide. 

The elements above mentioned are not found pure in the hu¬ 
man body, but are united together, forming a number of com¬ 
pounds, out of which the various organs are formed. The princi¬ 
pals are water, gelatine, albumen and fat. 

Now it will be observed that a body weighing 154 pounds, con¬ 
tains 111 pounds of water , 15 pounds of gelatine , If. 1 If of albu¬ 
men , nearly the same of jibrine , and 12 pounds of fat. Water is 
the most important constituent of the human body , since it goes 
to make up every portion of it. It is found within the solid 
flesh tissues, as well as in the blood, and is also present in the 
fats, as well as in all the juices or fluids of the entire system. 

There is a larger portion of this fluid in fleshy persons than in 
the lean, and of course more of this destructive element in the 
bodies of children than in the old. Nature gives the first the 
plastic fluids for their more rapid growth, with life, health and 
vigor, which in the latter has been exhausted, and in a similar 
manner we may note disease over health, especially that class of 
disease which tend to remove or exhaust the fluid of the body by 
their destructive tendency. This we find in long stages of fever 
or comsumption, while the opposite is found in death b} T acci¬ 
dent, apoplexy or dropsy. With the first the flesh is seemingly 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


13 


dried to a parchment, while in the latter are found all the fluids, 
which if evaporated would prove to be mostly oil and water. 

The Blood. —The blood of the human system amounts to about 
IS j)ounds or nearly 10 quarts. It has a specific gravity a lit¬ 
tle greater than that of water; is of a bright scarlet color if drawn 
from an artery , or dark purple if taken from a vein, with a taste 
slightly alkaline, and an odor resembling that of the breath of 
the animal from which it is taken. It penetrates every solid tis¬ 
sue of the system, as may be known by puncturing any part of 
the body with even a pin, when blood is sure to follow. If it be 
examined with a microscope when freshly drawn, it appears to 
be made up of a transparent liquid called the serum or plasma, 
and a number of minute circular bodies, mostly of a red color, 
called corpucles or minute bodies. This fluid is found on analy¬ 
sis to be made up of albumen , jibrine and several salts, some of 
which are found in distinct crystals, and after it has been drawn 
from the body a considerable time, it separates into a thickened 
mass called coagulum, made up of fibrine and the corpuscles, 
while the serum with the albumen still remain as a transpar¬ 
ent liquid. 

The red corpucles prove to be the flattened discs with both 
surfaces slightly concave, and measuring about 1.2300 of an inch 
in diameter, and are in reality nothing but a cell that is a bag 
or sack containing a fluid composed of the two proximate princi¬ 
ples,—globuline and hematine. Besides the red corpucles, there 
exists another kind of blood known as the white or colorless cor¬ 
pucles. The}' are by no means so abundant when the body is in 
health as the red corpucle. But in some diseases, and especially 
after death, the blood changes into a black or inky condition, 
which is termed ecchymosed. This fluid is that which presents 
itself at the surface to blacken the face, as soon as the gases 
generate sufficiently to fill the cavities, and depress the large 
vessels. 

The Lymphatic System and Fatty Substances of the Body. 
—The lymphatics are those fluids mostly encountered in the 
fleshy and the young, and those who die suddenly by disease or 
accident. They become most difficult classes of bodies for the 
embalmer to handle, as these fluid conditions are those which 
*but few of our profession can successfully master. A preserving 


14 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


fluid must reach all of the small arteries of the entire system so 
that the flesh and fatty substances may absorb it, as Prof. W. 
W. Ball says in his Elementary Treatise on Embalming: I have 
injected three pails of water in the body of a man, but the water 
is not a perservative; in fact it is the water of the flesh that we 
must dispose of, but as we cannot fully accomplish this we must 
do what we can to dry it or evaporate it from the body by chem¬ 
ical reaction. It is useless to inject fluid that will destroy the 
tissues, or use a fluid that may clog the arteries, and accomplish 
nothing, and here, when proper relief is given to all the distanted 
cavities, so that the gases may escape , it does more toward keep¬ 
ing a body than four fifths of the fluids used by the undertaker 
of to-day, as an intelligent practitioner has no doubt observed. 
The name derived is from (lympha, water.) They are also called 
absorbents. 

The lymphatic system includes not only the lymphatic vessels 
and the glands through which they pass, but also the lacteal or 
chyliferous vessels. 

The lacteals are the lymphatic vessels of the small intestines 
and differ in no respect from the lymphatics generally, except 
that they contain a milk-white fluid (the chyle) during the pro¬ 
cess of digestion, and convey it into, the blood through what is 
known as the Thoracic duct, and join the vessels of circulation at 
the junction of the subclavian and jugular vein. The lymphatics 
are almost a complete network of minute vessels, very delicate 
and transparent, while the glands are a, vnass of oily transparent 
and fatty tissues. 


ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 


The purpose of the present chapter, so far as our knowledge 
extends, is to describe the chemical history of those bodies 
wnich are characterized as being rather organized than organic; 
as constituting not merely a product of the vital operations of 
the being, but the mechanism itself by which these vital opera¬ 
tions are carried on; as making part of the tissues essential to 
its proper organization and life; and as being, while in connec¬ 
tion with the animal and participating in its life, protected from 





TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


15 


the truly chemical reaction of their proper elements, which after 
the death of the animal, especially when in contact with air or 
water, rapidly assume singular forms of union, and breaking up 
the complex animal tissues into a crowd of binary compounds, 
under the change well known as putrefaction. 

In connection with these substances which form the basis of 
the organs and tissues of the animal frame, will be brought 
under survey the processes by which, from the atmosphere or 
from the materials of our food, the substance of our organs is 
continually renewed, their growth provided for, and the condi¬ 
tions necessary for the continuance of life and health maintained. 

Of Fibrine .—This substance constitutes the basis of the mus¬ 
cular tissue, and forms an important constituent of the blood. 
In the latter it exists dissolved during life, but separates after 
death or extraction from the body, producing, with the coloring 
material, the phenomena of coagulation. In the muscles, the 
fibrine is arranged in a truly organized and living condition, 
constituting the contractile fibres, in which it is so interwoven 
with nervous and vascular filaments as to render its isolation 
impossible. To obtain pure fibrine, therefore, we have recourse 
to blood, which, if immediately on being drawn, it be briskly 
agitated with a little bundle of twigs, does not coagulate, but 
the fibrine is deposited on the twigs in soft, tenacious masses, 
which, being washed to remove any adhering coloring matter, 
and digested in alcohol and ether to remove any traces of fatty 
substances which may adhere to it, constitute pure fibrine, which 
may be dried by a gentle heat, and appears then, as a yellowish 
opaque mass, hard, tasteless and inodorous. If it be at all trans¬ 
parent, this results from traces of adhering fat. It is insoluble 
in water, alcohol and ether; it absorbs, however, so much water 
as to treble its weight, and thereby recovers the volume, softness 
and flexibility it possessed before being dried. 

If sulphate of soda or nitrate of potash be added to newly 
drawn blood, its coagulation is prevented; and if fibrine be di¬ 
gested in a strong solution of nitre, it dissolves, forming a thick 
liquid, which is coagulated by heat, by alcohol, b} 7 acids, and is 
precipitated by the salts of mercury , lead and copper , and by 
prussiate of potash. This property of fibrine will again come 
under our notice. 


16 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


Of Albumen. —This substance is even more extensiveiy dis¬ 
tributed through the animal frame than fibrine. Like fibrine, it 
exists in two conditions, one soluble and one insoluble in water; 
but whereas the fibrine becomes insoluble almost instantly on 
being withdrawn from the body, albumen may retain that state 
for an indefinite time, and its history is therefore more complete. 
In its soluble form it exists in the blood, in the serous secretions, 
in the humors of the eye; in the soluble or coagulated form, it 
constitutes a portion of most of the solid tissues. 

Soluble Abumen .—This is obtained in the solid form by evap¬ 
orating to dryness, at a temperature which does not exceed 120° 
F., the serum of blood; the dry mass is yellow, transparent, hard, 
tough, and contains, besides the albumen, the salts and some 
other constituents of the blood in minute quantities; these are 
extracted by digestion in alcohol and ether, which leaves the 
albumen pure. When thus completely dry, it may be heated be¬ 
yond 212° F. without passing into the coagulated condition; if 
digested in cold water, it gradually swells up and finally dissolves. 
This solution, when heated to a temperature between 140° and 
150° F., coagulates; if diluted, the solution may even be heated 
to 165° without coagulating, and when present in a very small 
quantity the albumen may not separate until the water boils. 

When once coagulated in this manner, albumen is totally in¬ 
soluble in water; it is then changed into its second form. The 
solution of albumen is precipitated b} r alcohol, by acids aud me¬ 
tallic salts, exactly as the solution of fibrine in saltpetre; the 
onty distinction that can be drawn between the two is, that the 
saline solution of fibrine is partially decomposed by the addition 
of a large quantity of water. 

The precipitates yielded by a solution of albumen with metal¬ 
lic salts are mixtures of two distinct substances, one a compound 
of albumen with the acid, the other a compound of albumen with 
the metallic oxide; the former is general^ somewhat soluble, the 
latter insoluble, hence the result of the application of albumen 
as an antidote to mineral poisons, as corrosive sublimate and blue 
stone. Albumen is also coagulated by many organic bodies, as 
tannic acid and creosote, which acts catalytically, as a very min¬ 
ute quantity of it coagulates a large quantity of albumen without 
entering into combination with it. 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


17 


Of the Gelatinous Constituents of the Tissues .—When the 
skin, cellular or serous, tissues, tendons, and seme forms of cart¬ 
ilage, as that of bones, are boiled in water, they dissolve in great 
part and form a solution which gelatinizes on cooling. Some of 
this tissues, as the skin, dissolve easily and almost completely; 
others dissolve but partly, and leave behind a quantity of coagu¬ 
lated albumen. In most kinds of cartilage a very prolonged 
boiling is necessary to extract a sensible quantity of gelatine. 
These various tissues are thus found to consist of albumen and 
gelatine, united in various proportions, and each presenting vari¬ 
ous degrees of condensation of texture, but by boiling, they may 
be completely separated from each other. 

, Gelatine is insoluble in alcohol or ether. When a solution of 
gelatine is long exposed to the air, it undergoes a commencement 
of putrefaction, and loses its property of gelatinizing. 

The action of reagents on gelatine is in some cases of high in¬ 
terest; it is not precipitated by solutions of either ordinary or 
basic alum; but if a solution of common salt be also mixed, the 
gelatine falls down, combined with alumina, as it decomposes the 
muriate of ammonia which is then formed. On this principle is 
founded the manufacture of white leather, by a kind of tanning 
with alum. 

The most important compound of gelatine is that with tannic 
acid , which constitutes ordinary leather; this.reaction is so dis¬ 
tinct that one part of gelatine in five thousand of water is at 
once detected by the infusion of galls. 

Many chemists consider that gelatine is merely a product of 
the decomposition of albumen and fibrine by boiling water, and 
not a true constituent of the tissues; but this idea is thought to 
be incorrect, on the following grounds: First, pure fibrine or albu¬ 
men gives no gelatine by boiling; Second, in the process of tan¬ 
ning, the tannic acid combines with gelatine in a skin which has 
never been boiled; and third, that we can easily understand why 
some tissues give more gelatine than others by the different de¬ 
grees or condensation of their structure. But it is rather con¬ 
sidered that gelatine bears the same relation to the tissues of 
the skin that proteine does to the fibrine of the blood, being 
really a product of its death and decomposition, through th Qonly 
representative of it which we can have. 


2 



18 , TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

The Fatty Constituents of the Tissues .—The fatty bodies, 
although contributing essentially to the support of the animal 
frame, are mere secretions, and do not form any portions of its 
organized tissues. The substances properly included under the 
present head are the constituents of the nervous tissue, such as 
it is found in the brain , the spinal cord and the nerves. 

In the composition of the brain it is easy to distinguish three, 
perhaps five, distinct substances of a fatty nature, the most char¬ 
acteristic and important is called cerebrote; in composition it 
resembles albumen, containing a large quantity of nitrogen. 

Saline and Extractive Constituents of the Tissues. —We find 
* in all animal tissues small quantities of a great variety of salts, 
the same as those which will be hereafter noticed as existing in 
the blood, to the presence of which in the substance of the tissues 
they are probably due. In the tissue of the bones and teeth, 
however, these saline matters are deposited in much greater quan¬ 
tities, and in disease and old age bony deposits occur in all those 
tissues, which yield true gelatine on boiling. The composition 
of the bones will be hereafter noticed. 

Of the Composition of the Tissues and of the Secretio7is in 
Health and Disease. —Having described thus individually the 
constituents of the tissues, we shall now present such results as 
have been hitherto obtained as to the quantitive composition of 
the organized tissues formed by their reunion, the secretory pro-, 
ducts and morbid alterations. 

The skin of animals is a congeries of finely constructed organs, 
sensitive and secretory, imbedded in a peculiar tissue, which is 
one of those most yielding gelatine, whence the process of tan¬ 
ning skins. On the surface of the skin there is secreted a sub¬ 
stance, which, though varying in anatomical structure and ap¬ 
pearance exceedingly, as it forms the fine epidermis, the nails, 
the hair, etc., is yet throughout all their shapes identical in 
chemical character and may be described as the same substance. 
The principal mass of hair is composed of the same substance as 
horn, but the color is due to an oil which may be extracted by 
ether. If by virtue of the sulphur contained in hair, a solution 
of litherage in some limestone water blackens it, a solution of 
nitrate of silver will also blacken the hair, but by a deposition of 
the metal. 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


19 


1 Lie prespiration from the skin varies in nature according to 
the part ol tlie body; it is generally acid, contains traces of albu¬ 
men, fatty matter and the salts of blood; it often contains also 
an odoriforous, volatile principal, characteristic of the animal by 
which it is secreted. 

Cellular and Serous Tissues —These tissues are constituted of 
gelatinous materials similar to that in the skin, and hence dis¬ 
solve by boiling water, being converted into gelatine. In the 
natural condition of these membranes, their surface is moistened 
b} 7- a watery liquid, which, accumulating in excessive quantity, 
gives rise to the dropsies of the cavities or of the cellular tissues. 
This serum of the cavities is clear and colorless. The cells of 
the cellular tissues, in which fat is usually deposited, are often 
filled up by an albuminous material having considerable anagoly 
with casein; it is thus that the diffused hardening of the cellu¬ 
lar tissue and the local white tumors have their origin. 

Of the Muscular Tissue. —From what has been already said of 
fibrine, it is evidently the essential element of the muscular tis- 
sue, and forms with water almost the whole of their parts. 

Of the Bones. —In vertebrated animals with osseous skeletons 
the earthly materials in all cases consists principally of phos¬ 
phate of lime with phosphate of magnesia, carbonate of lime and 
soda. By digesting a bone in dilute muriate acid, all of these 
inorganic salts are removed and the cartilage remains, preserving 
perfectly the form of the bone. 

The teeth present m their combinations, the greatest analogy 
to bone; the principal and organized substance of the teeth is 
indeed true bone, containing less cartilage and more phosphate 
of lime than other bones. The enamel, which is an organic 
secretion from the surface of the long tooth, is almost destitute 
of any animal mater. 

Of the Composition of the Blood. —Blood is, in the higher 
classes of animals, an opaque, thick, red fluid; it has a salty and 
nauseous taste, and a peculiar smell, resembling that of the ani¬ 
mal whence it has been derived. 

When the blood of anv red-blooded animal is allowed to rest, 
it gradually forms a soft jelly, from which, after some time, a 
thin yellowish fluid (serum) separates, while the red jelly or 
coagulum contracts in volume and acquires great consistence. 


20 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


If this coagulation of the blood takes place slowly, the upper por¬ 
tion of the coagulum becomes white or pale yellow; forming thus 
the huffy coat. There is no doubt that the blood, while in con¬ 
nection with the animal, participates in its life, and the phenom¬ 
ena of coagulation are to be referred to a new arrangement of its 
material conseqent on the loss of that vitality. 

The serum of the blood, when coagulation has been perfect, is 
of a yellowish (sometimes greenish) color, its taste is dull and 
saltv; it is a thick fluid like olive oil. When heated to 140° F. 
it coagulates. 

If we examine under the microscope the appearance presented 
by blood, we find that it consists of a great number of particles, 
swimming in a nearly colorless liquor. These red particles are 
flattened discs; in man they are round. Their size is variable, 
being in man from one four-thousandth to one eight-thousandth 
of an inch in diameter, but larger in other animals. 

The blood contains a large quantit}^ of albumen , partly dissolv¬ 
ed and remaining in the serum after coagulation, partly in a solid 
state, forming the great mass of the globules. 

In the living body the blood also contains fibrine in solution, 
but this separates soon after extraction from the body; it as¬ 
sumes a solid form, and investing as a sponge, the red globules 
forms with them the coagulum. 

The fibrine is thus the element active in the coagulation of the 
blood, the globules being but passively engaged in it. In addi¬ 
tion to this essential organic element, the blood contains a varie¬ 
ty of salts, as common salt, phosphate of magnesia, ammonia and 
lime, lactates of soda and magnesia. The best analysis of the 
blood are those of Lecanu, and the results for blood and serum 
are, that they contain in the human subject of each sex: Water, 
75.00; Albumen, 5.00; Globules, 7.14; Fibrine, 0.20. 

The fatty substance of the blood is a mixture of cholestine 
with stearic and oleic acid and a peculiar fatty substance termed 
seroline, the history of which is yet incomplete. None of the fats 
of the brain, however, seem to exist in the blood. 

The chemical history of fibrine and albumen having been 
already given, it remains only to describe the peculiar coloring 
matter, for the most accurate knowledge we possess concerning 
which, we are indebted to Lecanu’s elaborate researches on the 
blood. Pure hematosine or coloring matter, when it is coagulated, 


Treatise on embalming. 


21 


is a dark brown mass, tasteless, and inodorous; when heated it 
does not smell, but swells up and evolves ammoniacal products. 
It is insoluble in water, alcohol and ether; it forms with the 
mineral acids , compounds which are insoluble in ivater, but solu¬ 
ble in alcohol. 

By caustic alkalies it is dissolved with a red blood color, and 
these combinations are soluble in water, alcohol and ether. 
Hematosine contains neither phosphorus nor sulphur, but iron in 
large quantities. The state in which iron exists in hematosine 
has been, up to the present day, an object of much discussion 
among chemists; but with the knowledge we now possess of 
hematosine in its pure form, we must consider the iron to be an 
integral part of its organic constitution, as sulphur in albumen, 
or arsenic in alkarsine, and the opinion of its being oxydised 
and combined with the true organic element as a kind of salt 
can no longer be supported. If a solution of hematosine be 
acted on, by chlorine gas, a white flocculent precipitate is pro¬ 
duced, and the solution contains chloride of iron. 

Although hematosine is the coloring principle of the globules 
of the blood, it is present but in a very small quantity; one hun¬ 
dred parts of dried globules containing but four to five parts of 
hematosine; in the blood globule the hematosine exists in its 
uncoagulated state, and possesses properties somewhat different 
from those of its coagulated form. 

A solution of the colored blood globules in water, when ex¬ 
posed to the air, becomes of a brighter red color, being thus par¬ 
tially arteralized; it is coagulated also by alcohol and, acids; the 
hematosine then passes into the condition of insolubility, already 
described. 

The colorless ingredient in the blood globules has already been 
spoken of as being albumen, with which indeed it is identical in 
properties, but differ in some points. It has been termed globu- 
line. In its uncogulated condition it can not be separated from 
hematosine, and is there distinguishable from albumen, princi¬ 
pally by being insoluble in even a very dilute saline solution, 
which dissolves albumen readily. It is, hence, that the globules 
of the blood swim unaltered in the serum, but are readily dis¬ 
solved by pure water. 

If the blood, when extracted from the vein, is received into a 
vessel containing a solution of glaubers salt, coagulation is pre- 


22 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


vented, as tlie fibrine remains dissolved, and by filtering the 
liquor so obtained, the serum and water pass off, and the globules 
remain mixed only with little of the salt. The globuline cannot, 
however, be separated from hematosine, except by acids, which, 
as described in the preparation of hematosine, then combine with 
the globuline. 

Alteration of the Blood in Disease .—The examination of the 
state of the blood in disease, although presenting important rela¬ 
tions to pathology and to practice, has been conducted in a man¬ 
ner too disconnected and superficial to produce any satisfactory 
results. This branch of chemical pathology has, however, been 
taken up by the illustrious Andral and Gavaret, who have pub¬ 
lished the result of the analysis of the blood in three hundred 
and sixty cases of disease. 

Their researches have enabled them to recognize four classes 
of diseases, in which the composition of the blood is essentially 
altered, though in different ways. 

The first class presents as a constant alteration, an increase in 
the quantity of fibrine; it includes diseases remarkably different 
in their locality and form, but all belonging to the class of acute 
inflammations. In some cases of morbid deposition, as in tuber¬ 
cle and cancer, a similar increase in the quantity of fibrine is 
found, but it may be doubted whether it be due to abnormal 
growth, or to the inflammatory action which accompanies it. 

In the second class, the fibrine remains stationary, or even 
diminishes in quantity, while the globules increase in proportion 
to the fibrine. The diseases which belong to this class are con¬ 
tinued fevers without local inflammation, and some form of cere¬ 
bral hemorrhages. 

Cerebral Hemorrhages .—In the third class, the fibrine remain¬ 
ing unchanged, there is a remarkable diminution in the quantity 
of globules; of these diseases, chlorosis may be taken as an ex¬ 
ample, and in the fourth class, it is no longer the fibrine or the 
globules which are the subject of the morbid change, but the 
quantity of the albumen in the serum is diminished; of this class 
of affections is Bright’s disease. 

It has been observed, that in cholera the blood becomes so 
thick as to arrest circulation, and contains from thirty to forty- 
five per cent, of solid matter; it is then, also, less alkaline than’ 
healthy blood; this is connected, probably, with the matters 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


23 


vomited and evacuated, which are strongly alkaline, and contain 
a quantity of albumen. 

The blood has been found, occasionally, in cases of Diabetes 
Mellitus, to contain traces of sugar. The great discordance of 
the results obtained, may result, perhaps, from the sugar con¬ 
tained in the blood only for a short time after meals and be¬ 
ing rapidly evacuated by the kidneys. In jaundice, the green 
coloring matter of the bile has been found mixed with the blood. 
Other observations of morbid constituents of the blood are too 
indefinite to justify me in occupying space with them. 

Color of the Blood .—In the living body, the blood in the veins 
and arteries is well known to differ essentially in color; in the 
former being of a dark purple-red, in the latter of a bright Ver¬ 
million color. The change from the venal to the arterial state 
occurs during the passage of the blood through the capillary 
vessels of the lungs, where it is exposed to the action of an ex¬ 
tensive surface of atmospheric air; while the arterial blood, in 
traveling the general capillary system of the body, assumes the 
red, dark condition in which it is carried back 10 the heart by 
the veins. Yet, although the vital properties of the blood depend 
essentially upon this change of color, we are not able to connect 
it, with any alteration in the composition of the constituents of 
the blood, or even in their relative proportions. Arterial and 
venous blood contains sensibly the same quantity of water, fibrine ? 
globules, albumen and salts; and, by analysis, the composition 
of those bodies is found to be identical, no matter what kind of 
blood they may be derived from. To trace the difference of nature 
between arterial and venous blood, it is therefore necessary to 
study it under different points of view than its approximate or 
elementary composition. So far as we have yet explained it, the 
air which has been employed in respiration, is found to have 
undergone an important change of constitution; its volume is 
but slightly, if at all, altered; but a quantity of oxygen has dis¬ 
appeared, and is replaced by carbonic acid, in general equal vol¬ 
ume. Air which has been once respired, is found to contain 
from three to four per cent, of carbonic acid, and if the same 
quantity of air be continually breathed, the animal dies with all 
the symptoms of narcotic poisoning. When the carbonic acid 
has accumulated to from eight to ten per cent., the action of the 
air in expiration is therefore to remove carbon from the blood. 


24 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


The quantity so taken from the system in twenty-four hours is 
very large, and makes up the principal portion of that element 
which we take in, with our food; yet, such is the activity with 
which its assimilation provides, that no perceptible change in 
the solid elements of the blood can be perceived. 

It was, at one time, a much disputed point, whether the carbon 
so separated from the system was directly exerted from the lu ngs, 
and carried off as it were, by contact of the oxygen of the air, or 
whether the oxygen was first absorbed by the blood and carried 
by the circulation to every portion of the body, where it com¬ 
bined with the carbon, which was there present in excess, and 
the carbonic acid so produced, being dissolved by the venous 
blood, was thrown off on arriving at the surface of the atmos¬ 
phere in the lungs. The progress of science has, however, finally 
decreed in favor of the latter view, to which the fullest confirma¬ 
tion has been given by the careful and elaborate researches of 
Magnus. 

Gases in the Blood .—It was found that both arterial and ven¬ 
ous blood contain dissolved quantities of gases, oxygen, nitrogen 
and carbolic acid, which amount to from one-tenth to one-twen¬ 
tieth the volume of the blood; the proportions of these two gases 
to each other are different in arterial and venous blood; the oxy¬ 
gen in arterial blood being about one-half of the carbonic acid, 
while in the venous blood it seldom amounts to more than one- 
fifth; the difference is greatest in young persons, and probably 
is proportional to their activit} 7 of nutrition. The quantity of 
nitrogen appears to be the same in both kinds of blood, making 
from one fifth to one-tenth of the gaseous mixture. 

The physico-chemical conditions of respiration are simply ex¬ 
plicable upon these results, by the principle of gaseous diffusion, 
the fine lining pulmonary membrane being permeable to gases. 
When the venous blood arrives at the surface of the lungs, a por¬ 
tion of the carbonic acid which it contains is evolved, and a 
quantity of oxygen gas absorbed in place of it; these two quan¬ 
tities are not necessarily equal at each moment, though ulti¬ 
mately they become so, and hence, the volume of oxygen absorbed 
is generally, though not universally, equal to that of the carbonic 
acid given out. There appears, from the presence of nitrogen in 
equal quantity in both kinds of blood, to be an absorption and 
evolution of that gas, simply from physical laws and independent 


treatise on embalming. 


25 


of any application of it to the nutrition of the animal; hence the 
volume of nitrogen in air is sometimes increased, and at others 
diminished by respiration, and a man evolves much nitrogen 
when respiring an atmosphere of oxygen and hydrogen, while it 
has been shown that the rate of nutrition of a man is proportion¬ 
ate to the quantity of nitrogen it receives as food, and that none 
of that principle is really assimilated from the air. 

It is still by no means easy to decide upon the changes of 
color which occur in the blood during respiration; for this should 
appear connected, not merely with the presence of certain gases 
in the blood, but upon a true change into the composition of 
hematosine, which analysis cannot direct. 

Stevens first attracted the attention upon the influence which 
saline bodies have upon the color of the blood. If dark, venous 
blood is put in contact with a solution of common salt, glauber 
salt, nitre or carbonate of soda, it becomes as vermillion colored, 
as if it had been truly arterialized; on the contrary, the presence 
of carbonic acid impedes this action, and gives to blood, so red¬ 
dened by salt, not in excess, the dark tint of venous blood. 

If we consider, therefore, the arterial tint to be due to the ma¬ 
terial combination of the coloring matter with the saline constit¬ 
uents of the serum, this will be darkened, when, by passing 
through the capillary system, the blood takes up an excess of 
carbonic acid; and again, in the lungs, when the carbonic acid is 
replaced by oxygen, the vermillion color is restored, not by any 
active agency of the oxygen, but by the natural tint of saline 
hematosine becoming evident. 

Although this theory of the change of color is by no means 
free from objection, it appears to be better founded than any 
other that has been proposed. 

Animal Heat. — The phenomena of respiration consisting 
mainly in the convertion of carbon into carbonic acid, by union 
with oxygen, the heat which is developed in the body of all red 
blooded animals has been naturally referred to that source; and 
as we know that the change from the arterial to the venous con¬ 
dition of the blood occurs at every point of the system, the almost 
complete equality of temperature throughout the body in health 
is explained. That the great source of heat is the respiratory 
process, is abundantly proved by the temperature being highest 
in those animals, and in the same animal, at those periods when 


I 


26 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


the circulation is most rapid and the quantity of air consumed 
the greatest. But it has been calculated that the heat evolved 

the combustion of the quantity of carbon thrown off from the 
body in twenty-four hours is no more than eight-tenths of the 
quantity generated in the body during that time, and the origin 
of the remainder must be found in the action of the muscles and 
the nervous power, which appears of itself to be a distinct source 
of animal heat. 

COMPOSITION OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND OF THEIR SECRETIONS- 

CHEMICAL PHENOMENA OF DIGESTION. 

Mucus .—The living membrance of the alimentary canal is 
moistened with a liquid possessing many of the characteristics 
of vegetable mucus, but containing nitrogen. It is a thick, ten¬ 
acious substance, which contains, dissolved in the water through 
which it is diffused, the ordinary salts of the serum of the blood; 
it swells up with water to a considerable mass, but without dis¬ 
solving. It dissolves in alkaline liquors, and is precipitated 
therefrom on the addition of an acid and the tincture of galls; 
the mucus from different parts of the mucus membrance is, how¬ 
ever, by no means identical in properties. 

The liquid secreted by the internal surface of the stomach— 
the gastric juice—which exercises an important influence on 
digestion, differs essentially in its character from mucus. When 
the stomach is empty and contracted, it contains ordinary mucus; 
but if even indigestible substances are introduced, and still more 
after taking proper food, a liquid is abundantly poured out, 
which is colorless or pale yellow, and contains a very small quan¬ 
tity of solid matter (two per cent.), which consists principally of 
inorganic salts (common salts and sal ammoniac, with a trace of 
salt of iron); it is specially characterized by the presence of a 
notable quantity of free muriatic acid, the proportions of which 
vary with the activity of the digestive powers at the time. This 
gastric juice possesses the remarkable property of softening down 
and dissolving fibrine and albumen, and thus converts the masses 
of food into the uniform pulpe (chyme), from which the absorb¬ 
ing vessels of the small intestines, take up the nutritous elements. 

If we form an artificial gastric juice by mixing together the 
muriatic acid.and salts in the right proportions, it is found to be 
totally incapable of dissolving the materials of the food, and in- 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


27 


deed to be quite inactive towards digestion. The organic ma¬ 
terial of the gastric juice, although its quantity be so minute, is 
therefore, essential to its powers, and these may be perfectly con¬ 
ferred upon the previously inactive, artificial juice, by the ad¬ 
dition of a little of the mucus of the stomach or by steeping in 
the acid liquor, for a short time, a small portion of a mucus mem¬ 
brane, and filtering the liquor; for this purpose it is not even 
necessary to use the mucus membrane of the stomach, for that of 
the bladder has been found to answer equally as well. The sub¬ 
stance which is dissolved out of the membrane in these cases 
has been termed pepsiue. It has not been obtained in a truly 
isolated or pure form, but its properties are very remarkable. 
For its full activity it requires the presence of a free acid, as the 
artificial gastric juice becomes much less active in dissolving food 
when neutralized by an alkali, though it retains other properties, 
as that of coagulating milk-like rennet. If the artificial juice be 
precipitated by nitrate of lead, the precipitate washed, and then 
decomposed by sulphuret of hydrogen, the solution thus obtained 
possesses all the digestive powers of the juice. Hence the pep- 
sine and muriatic acid act together, by combining with oxide of 
lead. Pepsine appears to be completely decomposed by contact 
with alcohol or boiling water; its powers are also destroyed by- 
deodorizing substances; the solution of albumen and fibrine in 
gastric juice differs essentially from their solution in muriatic 
acid, as in the former case the quantity of acid is very minute, 
in relation to the quantity of material dissolved, and after solu¬ 
tion the acid remains quite uncombined. 

The action of the stomach in digestion, appears therefore, as 
far as our actual knowledge extends, a purely catalytic fermen¬ 
tative action; one in which the active excitant is an organic sub¬ 
stance (pepsine) secreted by the mucus surface, and whose prop¬ 
erties are developed by the presence of muriatic acid, which is 
secreted at the same time. The new products into which the 
food, fibrine, albumen, gluten, starch, oils, sugar, etc., are con¬ 
verted, and which collectively constitute the white uniform pulp, 
termed by physiologists chyme, have not been made the subject 
of accurate chemical researches. 

In the mouth, a mass of nutritive material is acted on by a 
liquid which is secreted by the salivary glands, the saliva. It is 
alkaline and holds in solution not one per cent, of solid matter, 


28 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


which contains some carbonate of soda and common salt, admix¬ 
ed mucous, and a peculiar organic body, termed salivary matter. 

This last substance is soluble in water, its solution is not co¬ 
agulated by heat, nor precipitated by tincture of galls, corrosive 
sublimate, acetate of lead, nor by acids. The pancreas so sim¬ 
ilar in structure to the salivary glands, has a different secretion; 
it contains no salivary matter, but albumen and some salts; it is 
generally slightly acid. 

Composition of the Bile .-— The precise part, which this re¬ 
markable secretion performs in the animal economy is not yet 
fully known; it has been the subject of repeated and accurate 
chemical examination, although, from the facility with which its 
elements are transferred into other bodies, by the action of the 
reagents employed, every succeeding analysis has led to different 
results. 

The Coloring Matter of the Bile .— This is present during 
health only in a small quantity, but in disease it sointimes accu¬ 
mulates so, as to form solid masses. When pure, it is a reddish- 
yellow powder, which is scarcely soluable in water or in alcohol, 
but dissolves easily in a solution of caustic pottash. This solu¬ 
tion is of a clear yellow color, but when exposed to the air it be¬ 
comes deep green, absorbing oxygen. This change is remark- 
.ably produced by nitric’acid, and it is indeed the reaction by 
which the presence of the bile in the serum of the blood, in the 
skin, in the urine, and eyes etc. may be shown in cases of 
jaundice. 

Chyle and Lymph .— The nutritive materials extracted from 
the food by the absorbing vessels of the intestines, is thrown 
into the thoracic duct, where it meets with another fluid, which 
is transmitted to the same vessel from all parts of the body, bv 
the colorless veins or lymphatics. The fluid from the intestines 
is termed chyle; that from the body is generally termed lymph. 
It is the mixture of these that has alone been examined, for the 
vessels which carry either separately are too minute to allow of 
the extraction of their contents in a pure form. 

When taken from the thoracic duct a few hours after a meal, 
when, probably, the chylous element prevails, it is whitish, opaque 
liquid like milk with generally a reddish shade; a short time after 
separation from the body, it coagulates; the clot is at first pale, 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


29 


but it soon becomes light crimson red; the milkiness of the 
serum is due to the presence of oil; it contains albumen and 
coagulates by heat; except that it is more dilute, and that the 
lematosine is for the most part absent, the chyle and lymph have 
the same composition as the blood. It appears to vary, however, 
with the nature of the food, as Dr. Prout found the chyle of per¬ 
sons fed on vegetables to contain a much smaller quantity of 
albumen than when they had, had animal food. 

Dr. Prout also indicates in chyle the presence of a substance 
which lie terms incipient albumen, which is not coagulated by 
heat, except after the addition of acetic acid; the properties of 
this form of albumen, however are not fully known. 

Constitution of the Urine in Health and Disease. —The na¬ 
ture or their secretion has at all times been an object of con¬ 
siderable interest to the chemist, from the indications which 
changes in its composition given of diseases, of important organs 
and from the number and interest of the different organic sub¬ 
stances it contains. As in almost all other branches of animal 
chemistry, Burzelius first determined its composition, and lately 
Lecanu has ascertained with great care the limits to which the 
proportions of its ingredients may vary in health, and this estab¬ 
lished a correct basis of comparison for urine in the various con¬ 
ditions of diseases. 

Of the Urine in Disease and after Death .— Urinary Calculi .— 
To the chemist, the indications of disease of the urinary and di¬ 
gestive organs, formed by changes in the composition of the 
urine are most valuable. The majority of the substances which 
are taken into the circulation, but are incapable of assimilation 
to our organs, are thrown off by this secretion, and hence a 
variety of medicinal substances may be traced to it, after having 
been ingested, sometimes quite unaltated, at others modified 
in their nature. Thus if alkaline salts of organic acids be taken 
into the stomach, the organic material is oxidized, probably 
during the action of respiration, while the alkali passes into the 
urine in the state of carbonate. If however the organic acid be 
taken uncombined, it escapes decomposition, and passing into 
the urine, produces an abundant precipitate of salts of lime. In 
the case of the tartaric acid and oxalic acids, some organic 
bodies, as aspharagine and the oil of turpentine, are decomposed, 


30 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


and the products which they form are excreted, giving to the 
urine peculiar odors; in the latter case like that of violets. 

The majority of coloring matters are thrown out of the system 
by their secretion, while others are not so given off. 

The mineral acids—alcohol—camphor and most metallic 
salts—do not pass into the urine to any sensible degree. 

Urine in Diabetes .—The most remarkable change in the nature 
of urine occurs in Diabetes Mellitus; it is voided in great quan¬ 
tity; it is found to contain a great quantity of grape sugar, and 
very little urea. 

It was supposed that in this disease urea ceased to be formed 
by the system, and was replaced by sugar; but it has been shown 
that, although the quantity of urea is very small in any one 
specimen of urine, yet the total quantity is so much increased, 
that in twenty four hours the natural quantity of urea is secreted; 
the secretion of sugar being an act of faulty digestion, and totally 
unconnected with the urea. These results have been fully con¬ 
firmed by experience, The diabetic urine sometimes contains 
albumen, which arises from complications of other forms of 
disease. 

All that has been said in the former chapter about the solid 
and fluid constituents of the human body may, at first sight, and 
to a great many seem to be superfluous and out of place in a 
work of this kind. It is true that the different modes of pre¬ 
serving bodies, as explained in the book, do not require this long 
dissertation of animal chemistry in order to be understood; still, 
when we consider that the chemicals used in these different pro¬ 
cesses have an object to accomplish, it must be granted that a 
thorough knowledge of the constituents of the body, their com¬ 
position and chemical proportion, will, to a great extent, explain 
the reason why these same chemicals are used in preference to 
others. 

The secondary object, which is not less important, consists in 
the fact, that a thorough knowledge of the animal chemistry of- 
the human organism is most necessary to understand the differ¬ 
ent changes which takes place in the formation of the different 
juices and tissues of the body, when they enter into combination 
with the chemicals, the object of which is, to render them im- 
putrescible. 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


31 


However, the study of these combinations affords a simple and 
clear explanation ol the means resorted to, in order to preserve 
bodies. 


ANIMAL MATTER—DISEASED OR PUTRID. 


Infection through the action of diseased or putrid animal mat 
ter, either by inoculation or otherwise, will be exemplified here, 
in its proper bearing and direct relation to the professional 
duties of the undertaker. Of animal substances rendered 
poisonous b} 7 diseases, we have instances in the several matters 
by means of which contagious and infectious diseases of a 
definite character are propagated. But the examination of these 
belong to the practice of medicine and not to the undertaking 
profession. We shall, therefore allude to those only which are 
occasionally developed, and which seem to act the part of irritant 
poisons. 

When cattle are over-driven and killed, though their flesh does 
not produce any disagreeable effects when eaten, but, if externally 
applied when in the raw state, to a wound, however small, a dif¬ 
fuse inflammation is the result, which has sometimes destroyed 
life. The purulent matter discharged from the nostrils of glan- 
dered horses presents us with an instance of similar kind. 
When this matter is applied to the hand by inoculation, inflama- 
tion of the part and an eruption of carbuncles is the consequence; 
and there are even well authenticated cases of the disease having 
been taken by grooms without inoculation. The most interesting 
example however, of poisoning to be traced to a virus, resulting 
from a morbid action, is that with which we are so familiar, as a 
consequence of wounds, incurred in dissection. The effects to 
be observed in such cases cannot be referred to animal matter, 
in a state of spontaneous decomposition, for they are never found 
to occur, unless at so early a period after death, as to preclude 
the possibility of ordinary putrefaction having been established. 
Experiments also, would seem to prove, that they are more fre¬ 
quently produced by the fluids effused, in the chest and abdomen, 
as a consequence of inflammation, than by any other of the solid 
or fluid constituents or secretions of the body. 




32 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


The symptoms which usually set in are briefly as follows: In 
a few hours after the reception of the wound, an acute pain is 
felt at the tips of the shoulder, and a swelling, at first colorless, 
is observed on the lateral part of the neck, between the trapezius 
and sterno mastoid muscles, which is acutely sensible upon 
pressure. At first the wound exhibits no unnatural appearance, 
but some time after the occurrence of the symptoms just stated, 
it is found covered with a small pustule containing a milky fluid. 
The pain and swelling at and above the shoulder now become 
worse, and extend to the axilla, from thence to the thorax, and 
down along the side; and a similar species of diffuse inflammation 
seizes upon the arm and forearm, following the course of the 
great absorbent vessels. This inflammation Mr. Collis conceives 
to be a species, sui generis quite different from phlegmonoid 
erysipelas. Toward the close of the attack, particularly when 
the termination is unfavorable, a few pustules similar to that upon 
the wound appear in other parts of tile body, and the skin of the 
inflamed regions is studded with little solid elevations, which at 
first sight are taken for vesicles; the constitutional invasion is 
sometimes, though not always, ushered in, by distinct rigors and 
vomiting, and a low typhoid fever, of the most malignant type, 
is present from the very commencement. Several individuals 
eminent for their anatomical zeal and scientific acquirements, 
have fallen victims to this formidable malady, amongst whom 
was the late Mr. Skekleton, museum curator to the Royal College 
of Surgeons in Ireland. An account of his case with some other 
of a similar description, has been published by Mr. Collis in the 
Dublin Hospital Reports, (volumes 3 and 4.) No lesions of in¬ 
ternal organs have been traced to their affection. After the re¬ 
ception of a cut or puncture either, in dissecting or in embalming, 
the part should be rendered as clean as possible by soap water, and 
a cupping glass, or the mouth, which will answer better, should 
be applied, until by suction, a considerable quantity of blood is 
drawn, and the surface of the wound entirely freed from foreign 
matter. These prophylactic measures will, generally speaking, 
be sufficient; but for greater security, it will be advisable to 
apply the potassa fusa or aqua fortis to the wound, with a view 
of destroying any of the poison, which may not have been pre¬ 
viously removed, or at least of modifying the inflammation which 
may follow: 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


*33 


When the hand and arm have become swollen, and the fever 
already described has set in with violence, the treatment which 
has been found most beneficial consists in the free administra¬ 
tion of opium, port wine, and other stimulants, the inflammation 
being at the same time combatted by the usual application. 
Mr. Collis, on general grounds, but without any experience of 
its efiiciency recommends calomel in repeated doses, so as to pro¬ 
duce rapid salivation. The effects just examined are the results 
of inoculation with animal matter, modified in a certain manner 
by circumstances not well understood, but not at all in a state of 
decay or decomposition. Animal substances, however, in the 
putrid state, possess similar powers, as has been proved by the 
experiments of Orfila—that is, when introduced into a wound, 
they excite diffuse inflammation, and at the same time, fever of 
the typhoid t} r pe. 


ANIMAL MATTER—PRESERVATION AND 

PUTREFACTION. 


From the great complexity of the composition of animal sub¬ 
stances, their decomposition is more rapid and its products more 
diverse than in the case of organic bodies of vegetable origin. 
While the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen give origin to the 
various kinds of ulmine and other substances of the same class, 
the nitrogen is generally valued as ammonia and the sulphur 
as sulphurated hydrogen. It is the presence of these bodies that 
give to the putrefying substances the disagreeable odors by 
which that process is distinguished from mere mouldering and 
rotting. Even during life the constituent particles of the body 
are in a continual state of change, being absorbed and thrown 
out of the system, while others are assimilated in their place. 
Any part of our constituents, liquid or solid, which become un¬ 
fitted for this vital function, is iherebj' killed, and must, if not 
got rid of, induce the death of the individual. Hence, precisely 
the same means which give to the animal substance the fixity of 
constitution which belongs to true chemical compounds and thus 
preserve them from decomposition by the disturbing action of 

3 


I 




34 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


tlieir own elements (as when we coagulate albumen by an acid, 
by corrosive sublimate, or by sulphate of copper) produce, il ap¬ 
plied to the living body, the death of the part or the whole being, 
by depriving the blood, or the tissue of the mutability of con¬ 
stitution, which is required for the functions of the animal 
frame. 

It is thus that the generality of metallic poisons act in pro¬ 
ducing death. Being absorbed into the system, they unite with 
the albumen and fibrine of the blood, and converting them into 
the insoluble compounds which we form in the laboratoiy, unfit 
them for the continual absorption and secretive offices which, as 
organs, while they live they must fulfill. If the injury be local 
and limited in extent, the part so coagulated may be thrown oft 
and after a certain time the functions return to their proper 
order. If the mass, or the importance of the affected parts be 
greater, the system cannot so get rid of the portions which have 
thus been removed from the agency of life, to submit to merely 
chemical laws; on the contrary, the vital powers of the remaining 
portions of the animal are so much weakened in the effort that 
general death is caused. For putrefaction it is thus necessary: 

1st. That the force of vitality which governs so completely 
the mere chemical tendencies of the elements of our tissues be 
removed. 

2nd. That there shall not be present any powerful chemical 
reagent with which the organized material matter may enter into 

combination and thus the divellent tendencies of the alfinities of 

* 

its elements be overcome. 

3rd. That water may be present in order to give the necessary 
mobility. 

4th. That oxygen be present, or at least some other gas, into 
the space occupied by which the gaseous products may be diffus¬ 
ed; and lastly, that the temperature shall be within moderate 
limits, putrefaction being impossible below 32° or above 182° F. 

The agency of the first of these preventive powers need not be 
further noticed. The second is extensively employed for em¬ 
balming purposes and in the preparation of bodies for anatomical 
studies, by baths , or injections into the arteries , of solutions of 
corrosive sublimate, acetate of alumina, sulphate of iron, tannin, 
wood vinegar and creosote; this last bodjq however, does not 
appear to act by direct combination, but by the complete coagula- 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


35 


tion it produces in all the tissues of the body that have protein 
for their base. 

The necessity for the presence of water is shown by the fact 
that by drying the animal substances they are completely pre¬ 
served. It is thus that the bodies of those perishing in the 
Arabian Deserts are- recovered years subsequently, dried, but 
completely fresh. 

Alcohol and common salt both act in the preservation of bodies 
by their affinity for water. If a piece of flesh is covered with 
salt, the water gradually passes from the pores of the flesh, and 
dissolving the salt forms a brine, which does not wet the flesh, 
but trickles off its surface; the water necessary for putrefaction 
is thus removed. 

Fourth by excluding oxygen, the putrefactive process is re¬ 
tarded, precisely as the fermentative action of the gluten in 
grape juice cannot begin until a certain quantity of oxygen be 
absorbed. It is thus that meat, that is sealed up in close vessels 
and then boiled for a moment is preserved; the small quantity of 
oxygen of the air remaining then in the vessel is absorbed, and 
the product of that minute change being coagulated by heat, it 
cannot proceed farther. 

A high temperature stops putrefaction by coagulating the 
azotised materials; a temperature below 32°, by freezing the 
water, acts as if the tissues had been dried; in both cases putre¬ 
faction is arrested. 

During putrefaction, at a stage prior to any fetid gas being 
evolved, a peculiar organic substance is generated, possessed of 
intensely poisonous properties, and the blood of persons who have 
died from its effects is found to be quite disorganized and irritat¬ 
ing when applied to wounds. 

This and the blood of over driven cattle »re found to produce 
effects similar to those of venomous reptiles and the wounds 
received in dissection are sometimes followed by similar fatal 
consequences. The communication of disease in this way has 
recently been very ingeniously ascribed by Liebig to the general 
principle of the communication of decomposition b} 7 contact. 

The small quantity of diseased organic matter originally in¬ 
troduced into the system by absorption, acts as a ferment and 
reproduces itself in the mass of the blood, until this becomes 
unfitted for the performance of its functions and the animal is 


36 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


killed; the active principle being thus copiously present, is ex¬ 
uded from the skin and lungs and gives a contagious character 
to the disease, or it remains only in the blood, or is secreted in 
pustules, constituting infection, by which the disease may be 
communicated to some other person. 

This brief enumeration of the process of putrefaction will, to a 
certain extent, elucidate the process of embalming given in this 
book; it shows that the different methods herein explained, ful¬ 
fill the conditions necessary to stop the progress of decomposition. 

A most important point, and one which ought not to be passed 
upon, without serious consideration, is the communication of 
disease by contact and absorption. 


RAPID DECAY OF THE HUMAN STRUCTURE. 


Under this heading, we will present to our readers an essay 
upon the causes of the dissolution of the human body, by 
W. W. Ball. 

As soon as the vital action ceases, decomposition ensues in 
the substances which were before, the very elements of life, viz: 
blood, lymph, ch} T me, chyle and gastric juice become active 
agents in its destruction. In the blood, the most important 
agent during life, as soon as life ceases becomes one of the lirst 
to produce that blackened putrid and sloughing condition we 
find shortly after death. The blood being left in every part of 
the body, it breaks up and forms new compounds, of which only 
a general outline is attainable, for want of definite chemical 
analysis or microsco,pical observation. The fibrine and serum 
separate; the former, which contains most of the red corpuscles, 
albumen, saline, and fatty substances, gelatinates or coagulates on 
the sides of the vessels themselves, while the serum permeates 
the surrounding tissues, uniting with oxygen carried off from the 
pulmonary structure during life, and these, having an affinity for 
the tissues, form these compounds termed sulphuretted and 
carburetted hydrogen gases, giving rise to that effluvium which 
characterizes deceased bodies. 




37 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

CONDITION OF THE BLOOD. 

After death the blood is found in two forms. This is owing 
to certain diseases and circumstances. The first is encountered 
when death has ensued after a long stage of sickness. The vital 
fluids become exhausted by disease, and the organs of circulation 
become too weak to perform their office of circulating the fluid 
they contain, hence, dissolution takes placedn the blood from 
want of constant and rapid action. Thus the fibrine becomes 
lodged and coagulated in the veins and capillary system. The 
fibrine and serum separate, leaving the fibrine clotted, and the 
serum a transparent, fatty or oily liquid, permeates the tissues 
of the flesh. Usually the arteries are found without any blood 
remaining in them. In instances of this kind there will be no 
difficulty encountered from the corpse turning black, as the 
gases cannot force the blood to the surface into the capillary 
system; because the fibrine is lodged elsewhere, but the flesh 
may turn brown or saffron color to some extent. 

DIFFICULT CASES. 

The second condition of the blood is found when death re¬ 
sulted from accident or short duration of sickness. In these in¬ 
stances there is usually a large abundance of fluids remaining in 
the system. These foster fermentation in every structure, and 
evolve the gases so rapidly, as to cause the cavities of the thorax 
and abdomen to become extended to their utmost capacity with 
gases that induce the blood to leave the vessels in the thorax 
and appear at the surface in the capillary system. In this in¬ 
stance the fibrine and serum of the blood remain together in an 
inky condition. Thus it is observed that the gases are so 
rapidly evolved by the destructive fluids, that before the fibrine 
coagulates it is forced from the vessels of the thorax (especially 
the superior vena cava) and caused to appear above the surface 
into the neck and face. The great pressure of the gases de¬ 
presses the vessels of the thorax in the same manner that it does 
the stomach when purging takes place, which occurs invariable 
whenever the stomach contains any movable matter. The 
lymph, chyle and chyme, which are the same or similar, as soon 
as death ensues takeon new molecular changes; the lymph 
especially, which is retained in all the glands and vessels of the 
lymphatic system, enter into the process of decomposition, 
fostering putrefaction in the whole structure; while the gastric 


38 TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

juice, a peculiar fluid so subservient to digestion, which affects 
the food only during life, immediately attacks the substances of 
the stomach when life is extinct in the same or similar manner 
as it affected the food during life, corroding and completely de¬ 
stroying everything with which it comes in contact, as there is 
no vitality to resist its action. Elements having other affinities 
and the organism generally, hurry back to their primeval state. 
Nature knows no delay. The work to be done is to disorganize 
the body and destroy its form. This is the work of heat, moist¬ 
ure, air and germs in unison causing the fluids and tissues of 
the body to decay rapidly, while the albumenoid matters are 
decomposed into fetid gases escaping in the air, which in a short 
time accomplish the work of dissolution, leaving the body a mass 
of corruption and the receptacle of myriads of germs of micro¬ 
scopic beings. The corpse is their natural aliment, and death 
their chosen laboratory. 

The products of putrefying animal matter are carbonic acid, 
water, ammonia, and carburetted hydrogen gases which are 
generally mixed with various portions of phosphuretted and 
sulphuretted hydrogen gases. The blackened or mortified ap¬ 
pearance in those instances is usually caused by the dark blood 
from the vessels of the thorax. The great pressure of the gases 
in the abdomen and thorax prevents the liquid from gravitating 
to the regions of the heart and large vessels, producing the black 
and livid appearance of the face and neck by its retention in the 
capillary system of the epidermis. Man has been facetiously de¬ 
scribed as twelve pounds of solid matter wet up with six pails of 
water; hence the great abundance of water in the human struct¬ 
ure gives the necessary mobility for putrefaction. This is 
proven by this fact; that by drying the animal substances they 
are completely preserved. It is thus, that the bodies of those 
perishing in the Arabian Deserts are recovered years subse¬ 
quently dried, but otherwise fresh and lifelike. This fact also 
proves that the climate of Asia is far more favorable for the 
preservation of animal substances than this country, and no 
doubt had a great deal more to do in preserving the mummies of 
the ancient Egyptians than any art, or untold science. 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


39 


DEATH. 


Physicians, and well as professional observers, are aware that 
there are two modes of death, the one more or less sudden, the 
other gradual. The former is the least common, and either takes 
place, as the termination of some extensive organic disease, seat¬ 
ed in an organ directly essential to life, as in extensive cerebral 
hemorrhage and other injuries of the brain, rupture of the heart, 
aneurism of the aorta, etc., or else upon some sudden exertion 
during exhaustion from protracted disease, as occasionally hap¬ 
pens in the last stages of pulmonary consumption, cancer, and 
in anemia. In these cases death is instantaneous, gives no 
warning of its coming, and takes place without a struggle. 

The phenomena of gradual death vary a good deal in different 
diseases; it is a beneficient provision that the exit out of life 
should oftener be more terrible to the spectators, than to the 
patient; that before the struggle comes, which is to separate the 
body and soul, the one should be insensible to impressions, and 
the other unconscious of sufferings. Comparatively speaking, it 
is very unusual for the mind to remain unimpaired until death; 
the final struggle does not usually commence until coma has 
thoroughly blunted the perceptions. Then a clammy and cold 
sweat stands upon the skin, the respiration grows quicker and 
shorter, and seemingly anxious, but really automatic efforts are 
made to expel the mucus which chokes up the lungs, and begins 
to rattle in the throat; the artery at the wrist pulsates more rap¬ 
idly, but with gradually decreasing regularity and strength, un¬ 
til it can no longer be felt; the hands roam about with an uncer¬ 
tain and tremulous movement, as if in search of something, and 
coldness seizes upon the fingers and toes, and slowly advances 
toward the trunk. In maladies, attended by much emaciation, 
the state of the countenance is that called Hippocratic, after the 
writer who first described it. It is attended by a total loss of 
natural expression of the face; the skin is dry, shrunken and 
pale, or of a yellowish, livid or leaden hue; the nose is cold, 
sharp, and has its extremity drawn to one side; the eyes are 
sunken, filmy, and half-closed; the temples and cheeks hollow; 
the ears shrivelled and retracted, and the lips and lower jaws 
completely relaxed. 



40 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


The duration of this phenomena may not exceed two or three 
hours, or may last for one or two entire days. They are most 
frequently observed at the close of chronic diseases, but are oc¬ 
casionally met with in what is improperly called sudden death, 
but which is only a sudden and short disease. We allude to 
those cases of apoplexy in which death takes place within from 
ten to twenty four hours after the commencement of the attack. 
The progress of the mortal symptoms is often in such cases, pre¬ 
cisely what has been described above. 

By the publication of Biscliat’s masterly analysis, our know¬ 
ledge of the mechanism of the act of death has been materially 
increased. We shall describe its principal varieties. There is 
natural, and there is accidental death. The former occurs in 
old age, and is marked by the steady and gradual decay of all 
the powers of life, organic as well as animal. As man advances 
to the natural limit of his earthly existence, he loses his means 
of intercourse with the external world; one by one all the 
avenues of sense are shut up, the eyes grow dim, the ears dull, 
and smelling, tact and taste are blunted; his mind, but feebly 
impressed with the objects and events around him, lies dormant, 
or is moved only by recollections of days long past; his tottering 
gait, his shrivelled and horny skin, his yarning for the fireside 
and the genial warmth of the sun, show how languidly the great 
functions of the circulation are performed; by degrees his diges¬ 
tion becomes impaired, and then decline proceeds more rapidly; 
innervation, colorification, absorption and secretion, all become 
embarrassed as the capillary circulation languishes; sooner or 
later this function ceases, and last of all the heart dies. 

Death advances from the circumference to the center; fre¬ 
quently, it is true, old persons are cut off by definite diseases, 
and their mode of death differs in no essential respect from that 
of the young. 

On the other hand, there are many sudden deaths in which the 
starting point and succession of the terminal phenomena of life 
can be distinctly traced. 

In these, the cessation of function, which constitutes death, 
proceeds from the center to the circumference, commencing eith¬ 
er at the heart, the brain, or the lungs. These three organs 
appear to be so directly and immediately essential to life, as to 
have been called figuratively, the tripod on which it rests. Yet 



TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


41 


it must not be understood that the} r are alone essential, for, in 
the case of old age and that of man} 7- exhaustive diseases, death 
evidently commences in the parenchyma of the organs; the nutri¬ 
tive function is then the first to cease, and that, doubtless, because 
the blood has lost its healthful qualities. In various acute dis¬ 
eases, too, it is impossible to analyze the phenomena of death, 
so as to fix upon the organs in which it originates, and equally 
so, to ascertain the cause of its occurence. The following ac- 
count of the modes of death is therefore to be received as the ex¬ 
pression of what takes place in those cases onl} 7 , which are sus- 
ceptable of analysis in consequence of all the organs retaining 
their integrity, except the one in which the fatal process takes 
its rise. 

Death commencing at the heart, or by syncope, is the most 
sudden form. The pulsations of this organ may be instantan¬ 
eously stopped, and life extinguished like the light of a taper 
that is blown out. They may also decline more slowly and grad¬ 
ually; the former happens in wounds of the heart, in ruptures of 
its tissue, of aneurismal sac in its neighborhood, in mechanical 
obstruction of the passage of the blood through its cavities, and 
from debility of the organ. In most of these cases the cause re¬ 
sides in the heart itself; its function is destroyed by some remote 
cause affecting its mechanism or its vitality. In others, however, 
its function ceases, because a sufficient quantity of blood no long¬ 
er reaches the interior of the organ, as in profuse hemorhage. 
The brain in common with the other organs is deprived of its due 
supply of blood, and sensation and voluntary motion are at once 
suspended; the lungs cease their motion immediately aftirward, 
and the changes of the blood necessary even to the functions of 
organic life failing to take place, those functions can no longer 
be performed. 

Death commencing in the lungs , or by asphyxia or suffocation, 
is owing to some cause which prevents haematoses. Extensive 
induration of the pulmonary parenchyma, tumefaction of the 
membrane lining the smaller bronchia, or the .repletion of these 
tubes with mucus, etc., mechanical obstructions of every kind to 
the entrance of air through the larynx or trachea present in¬ 
stances of this cause. Owing to this influence, the venous blood 
instead of acquiring, in its circuit through the lungs, the quali¬ 
ties of arterial blood, is returned to the left side of the heart, and 


42 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


thence distributed over the system, still loaded with the excre- 
mentitious matters, which should have been exhaled or revived 
by contact with the air. Such a fluid is deleterious wherever it 
moves; in the brain it destroys voluntary motion, sense, and gen¬ 
eral sensibility, and induces coma; it impairs even the exited 
movements of the respiratory muscles, thus allowing the lungs, 
the pulmonary artery, and the right side of the heart, to become 
gorged with blood; the last named organ receiving through the 
coronary arteries such an imperfect stimulus, soon loses its pow¬ 
er of contracting, and then death is complete. This is perhaps 
the most ordinary mode of death in acute diseases, but its pro¬ 
gress is often so gradual, and it becomes so involved with declin¬ 
ing power of the brain and heart, as well as with the failure of 
the nutritive function, that to assign to each of these causes its 
appropriate phenomena, is perhaps impossible. 

Death commencing in the brain , or b} r coma, is generally owing 
to compression. Depression of the skull, or a tumor of the min- 
inges, by an effusion of serum, blood, or pus, in or upon the brain, 
or by excessive congestion of the cerebral vessels. This latter 
may arise from a great variety of causes, among which may be 
mentioned alcoholic and narcotic poisons; but this, perhaps, ex¬ 
erts in addition some injurious impression upon the nervous 
function. Loss of general and special sensation, of voluntary 
motion, and of consciousness, follow the action of any of these 
causes, but not always in the same order. Consciousness is, 
however, usually the first to fail, and then the several senses 
cease to perceive impressions distinctly, such, at least, is the case 
when death approaches slowly, in consequence of serous effusion: 
but, when more rapid in its onset, in apoplexy for instance, all 
the functions of the brain are suddenly abolished. Nevertheless, 
as was previous remarked, the patient may live internally for 
many hours and even days after the stroke, although he is to all 
appearance dead. Certain it is, however, that in death commenc¬ 
ing with the brain, actual dissolution does not take place until 
the other two of the triumvirate rulers of life have lost their 
power. 

Respiration first becomes embarrassed through paralysis of the 
respiratory muscles, asphyxia commences, and as it proceeds, the 
heart becomes gorged, and at last ceases to pulsate. 

Thus, it will be observed, that however the act of death may 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING-. 


43 


commence, it has one uniform termination,— cessation of the 
heart’s movements. When the starting point of the mental pro¬ 
cess is in this organ, the result is generally so immediate, that 
no perceptible derangement, either of the brain or lungs, pre¬ 
cedes it. In the exceptional cases, those in which the patient 
has lived for some hours after the rupture of the heart, or of the 
aorta, on reaching a certain degree, produces syncope, upon 
which, of course, death closely follows. 


DEATH BY APNCEA. (PRIVATION OF AIR.) 

DROWNING, AND IMMERSION AFTER DEATH-HANGING — SUFFOCATION 

-STRANGULATION—DEATH BY FOISONOUS GASES- 

THE EFFECTS OF IMPURE AIR. 

Mons. Tardieu, and some English authorities, object to these 
various modes of death being classed together; they attach more 
importance to the differences, than to the communities of these 
conditions, and it can not be denied that nearly all of them have 
something distinctive which warrants the separate treatment of 
each. On the other hand, the points of resemblance are many 
and striking; there is a practical convenience in commenting on 
the special circumstances of each fatal ending. In death by 
apnoea, we have, before life is extinct, lividity of the lips, fingers 
and other extremities, and in general of the whole face and 
other visible parts of the body; there are convulsive movements, 
which are at first more or less voluntary, though still instinctive 
or reflex struggles to breathe or to save life, and afterwards in¬ 
voluntary and unconscious spasmodic clonic movements of mus¬ 
cles and limbs, which are probably due to the stimulus of venous 
blood on the motor center of the brain and spinal cord; the veins 
become turgid; the pulse is at first full and compressible, but 
gradually becomes more feeble; there may be, and often is, froth¬ 
ing at the mouth; this froth may be tinged more or less deeply 
with blood; blood may escape from the nostrils, anus, vagina 
and other mucous membranes; urine, faeces and semen may be 
discharged involuntarily, and the heart no longer beats. This 
kind of death is more or less rapid—from two to five minutes is 
the usual time. In the case of drowning, apparent exceptions 




44 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


are explicable by the occurrence of syncope at the post mortem 
examinations. We shall find in all of these deaths: 

1. —More or less lividity of the lips, extremities and general 
surface, as has been described in life. In drowning, the face is 
often pale; sometimes it is so in hanging. 

2. — Hypostases, or post mortem stainings, of darker color, 
than in some other forms of death. 

3. —The venous system will generally be found gorged with 
a very dark color of blood; the arteries will for the most part be 
empty, especially in young persons. 

4. —Rigor mortis is said to set in slowly, but the muscles 
become tetanized and remain fixed in that position. In hanging 
and other violent deaths, the genital organs are often turgid and 
erect, so that we get priapism in the male and an analogous con¬ 
dition in the female. In drowning, the penis is retracted and 
the scrotum shrunk, unless distended with gases from putrefac¬ 
tion. 

5. —The blood iself will be found unusually dark in color, 
containing less oxj’gen and more carbonic acid; the blood is also 
unusually fluid in death by drowning; and in death by hanging 
we occasionally find the same post mortem results as in death by 
syncope. The heart may fail, and fainting occur in the first 
moments of immersion, or suspension, and thus nearly all the 
phenomena are changed. We shall deal first with the subject of 

DEATH BY DROWNING. 

We have here in most cases, two distinct sets of phenomena, 
viz. those due to suffocation, and those due to protracted im¬ 
mersion or submersion in the water. Some general considera¬ 
tions on this mode of death may reasonably precede more minute 
details. W hen a man, woman or child is thrown or falls into the 
water, he or she generally makes some efforts or struggles to save 
him or herself; if he be a swimmer, these efforts are intelligent, 
but he may, especially in cold stormy weather, soon become ex¬ 
hausted, or he may be seized with a cramp which so to speak, 
tetanizes his muscles, and this spasm may extend to the organs 
of respiration, and even to the heart itself; or fear, particularly if 
the dread of sharks or some dangerous spot be superadded, may 
induce syncope. 

When a man falls, or is thrown into the water, he first sinks 
to a greater or less depth, but almost immediately rises to the 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


45 


surface again, and if he is a swimmer, makes an effort to save 
himself, till a*t length he is reduced to the condition of one, who 
can not swim at all, with this difference, that he has already 
exhausted the strength which the other has in reserve for the 
death struggles common to both; these struggles consist of ir¬ 
regular movements of the arms and legs, and grasping of the 
hands at all objects within reach, whether floating in the water, 
fixed at the bottom, or growing on the banks. In the course of 
these irregular movements he rises repeatedly to the surface, 
tries to breathe, and takes in air and water, the contact of water 
with the windpipe causes a cough, by which part of the fluid is 
rejected, and with it some air from the lungs; this occurs again 
and again, until the bod}’ no longer rises to the surface; water 
alone is received in the vain effort to respire, while forcible, in¬ 
voluntary expirations continue to expel the air from the.chest; 
at length all these efforts cease, the body sinks to the bottom, 
and bubbles of air are forced from the chest by the elastic re¬ 
action of its parietes; the water which has entered the mouth 
finds its way into the stomach, the rest into the lungs; and this 
residue, mixed with the secretion of the mouth and air passages, 
and frothed by the air inspired and expired, forms the foam so 
constantly met with in persons who have perished in this way. 

TOST MORTEM APPEARANCES ESPECIALLY DUE TO DROWNING. 

1. — Gooseskin, or cutis anserina , is met with in many cases, 
yet it is not really pathognomonic of drowning, being met ,with 
especially in the lower classes, in other violent modes of death. 

2. —A livid , grayish blue color of the hands and feet, like the 
cholera hand, or washerwoman’s hand; the skin is wrinkled and 
corrugated, as well as cyanotic; this symptom needs from twelve 
to twenty four hours submersion, and may occur in bodies thrown 
in the water after death. 

3. —Contraction of the penis , with retraction, so that the penis 
appears inordinately small, even in men of large structure. 

4. — Sandi, gravel , mud, et.o., may be found under the finger 
nails of the body; these are not always present, but when found 
may be of importance; sometimes fragments of sea or fresh 
water weeds may be found in the hands, as well as in the 
stomach and lungs. 

5. — Excoriations or abrasions of the fingers are very common. 
As regards the condition of the eyes—they are sometimes wide 


46 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


open, closed, or lialf open; the face is somewhat bloated, often 
pale. 

6. —Post mortem rigidity is generally present. 

7. —In cases of homicide or suicide, the hands and feet may 
be tied together, and weights attached to the body; if this has 
taken place during life, or whilst the body is still warm, we shall 
find similar appearances in the marks of the ligatures to those 
described under hanging and strangulation to which we must 
refer you. In cases of homicide (murder by drowning) there will 
probably be marks of other injuries, contusions, wounds, etc. 

8. —There may be froth at the mouth and nostrils, and this 
may be blood stained; though very common, it is not peculiar to 
death by drowning. It is to be noted, however, that death by 
apnoea may be produced by a very small quantity of mud or 
water in feeble or intoxicated persons. The internal appearances 
of death b} 7 drowning belong more to the medical student. 

If, on the other hand, you find marks of a cord around the 
neck (see hanging,) gun shot wounds, stabs in‘vital regions, 
or traces of poison, 3 t ou may reasonably conclude that the body 
has been thrown into the water after death. In this case, in ad- 
fyks dition to putrefactive phenomena, there may be those due to 
imbibition. 

DEATH BY HANGING. 

As in the case of drowning, so in hanging, death does not 
always take place exactly the same way; whilst asphyxia or 
apnoea—death beginning at the lungs—is very common ; death by 
cerebral hypermmia or death beginning at the brain, and a form 
combining these (asphyxia with apoplexy,)death due to syncope, 
and death from injury to the spinal cord and vagus nerve in the 
neck, are also met with. It is well to establish here these dif¬ 
ferences as we shall again find them in the post mortem ap¬ 
pearances. 

POST MORTEM APPEARANCES IN DEATH FROM HANGING. 

Omitting almost all those common to death bytapnoea, the 
special appearances are as follows: The body may be stiffened 
in almost any position, according to the attitude in death; the 
tongue is often protruded or pressed against the teeth; the 
pupils are nearly always dilated, the eyes often staring; the 
position of the head varies with the part of the neck where the 
rope or ligature is attached, and the position of the knot; the 


47 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

commonest position is with the head forcibly Hexed forwards, 
the chin pressing against the upper part of the chest; sometimes * 
it is in the same position as in a man walking with head erect, 
sometimes bent a little to one side or the other; more rarely the 
head is completely bent backwards in case the knot was just 
under the chin. In fact, as Tardieu says, the head will always 
be found inclined to the opposite side, so that where the cord 
which suspends it forms the knot, which answers to its fixed 
attachment, and towards the side, as the middle of the loop thus 
formed for the neck; hence, as the middle of the loop is nearly 
always in front, the head bends towards the chest; the hands 

i 

vary in positions like the head, and the fists are often closed, 
and so tightly, that the finger nails often penetrate the palms; 
but in incomplete hanging the hands may be stretched out, or 
rest on the ground, open, and rarely one or more may be found 
fixed in the endeavor to loosen the rope; the legs also vary in 
position, but they are general^ somewhat livid; the face is some¬ 
times pale, more often congested, especially in those who have 
been long suspended; it is generally admitted that there is often 
froth stained with blood about the nose and lips; the neck is 
streched in nearly all cases owing to the weight of the body; it 
presents marks varying with the kind of ligature, and its mode 
of application and the great or less vitality of the tissues. 

In addition to ropes, ribbons, cravats, etc., all have been em¬ 
ployed; while window sashes, fences, posts or the feet of a bed, 
etc., have all been used to attach the ligature; the marks of course 
will vary with the size and stiffness of the ligature, and with the 
kind of knot or loop formed; it need not go all around the neck to 
destroy life. Tne knot may also be in front or behind or at either 
side; rarely, when the hanging has been brief and the ligature 
soft and supple, there may be scarcely any mark at all. More 
often there is a groove or furrow in the neck, which in eighty per 
cent, will be between the chin and the larynx, or upper part of 
the windpipe; this may be oblique in direction, and the mark is 
often interrupted; this furrow is single or double like its cause. 

A large, thick single sewed leather thong, pressing only by its 
border, would leave a double mark, and the furrow may not 
quite correspond with the size of the ligature in general; the, 
narrower the cord or ligature, and the longer the hanging, the 
deeper the furrow. In cases of short suspension the color may 


/ 


48 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

be quite natural; so also when the blood vessels and skin are 
young and healthy; more often, indeed, sometimes after only 
short suspension, the furrow undergoes a sort of desiccation and 
becomes like parchment; above and below the borders of the 
furrow, which are slightly raised in most cases; the skin is 
generally violet, a color usually due to congestion. There may 
also be finger marks, even in cases of suicide; note their direc¬ 
tion, size and number; if the furrow be cut into, sometimes blood 
escapes; the state of the genital organs is often one of turges- 
cence, so that in males the penis is more or less erect or large, 
and there is an emission of something like seminal fluid, which 
is really prostatic in most cases, and may be mixed with blood; 
in the female there may be an erect clitoris, and there is often a 
sort of spurious menstruation. There is, however, no reason to 
believe that any pleasurable feelings are connected with this. 
(See Boismontand Tardieu.) 

HANGING, OR SUSPENSION AFTER DEATH. 

Casper found in his experiments that if a body were hanged 
immediately after death (say within one or two hours) the ap¬ 
pearances as to the mark of the cord, etc., were just the same as 
if death had taken place by hanging; in one place seventy two 
hours had elapsed. These remarks apply exclusively to the out¬ 
side of the body, and to the neck in particular. Casper’s con¬ 
clusions are somewhat contradictory as regards his own experi¬ 
ments at different times; but Taylor and others adopt his con¬ 
clusions in the main, as we are also bound to do; so far as that 
of the tissues preserve a certain amount of vitality, the cord will 
• produce marks; the blood, however, will be less fluid, and there 
would not be extravasation of blood. 

Your answer to the question, was death caused by hanging? 
can seldom be positive as regards the medical evidence alone, 
since we have seen, that there is no one sign peculiar to hanging 
constantly met with. The second question, was death suicidal 
or homicidal? depends on a variety of circumstances, and like 
the former can seldom, if ever, be answered from post mortem 
appearances. 

You must carefully note down the surroundings, the absence 
of all signs of struggling and marks of injury on the body, as 
well as the previous history of the defunct; the time, place and 
manner of the hanging will aid you, if guided by common sense, 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


49 


to frame your answer. So also where there are other marks of 
violence on the body, or the furniture of the room, or other sur¬ 
roundings show traces of severe struggling. If both doors and 
windows are found fastened from the inside, suicide would gen¬ 
erally be probable; but this fact is scarcely material evidence. 
Still a trained observer, such as an undertaker is supposed to be, 
is wrong to overlook these things, and leave them to the police 
to discover. Remember that poison may have been given before 
hand, and the body hanged afterwards to arrest suspicion. 

DEATH BY STRANGULATION. 

By this, as distinct from hanging or suspension, we mean 
death by pressure applied either by a ligature around the neck, 
or by direct pressure of the hands, or otherwise, upon the wind¬ 
pipe, or other parts of the neck. 

Tardieu and Taylor justly insist on the greater force required 
(in adults, at least, and in infants,) to strangulate, than to hang. 
As therefore, hanging, (except in the case of executions, or of 
the bodies hanged post mortem) for the most part means suicide. 
So strangulation, accidents excepted, for the most part means 
murder. What we mean by accident may be here illustrated: 
Dr. Taylor saw in Guy’s Hospital, in November, 1874, a boy aged 
fourteen years, whose silk necktie, knotted and tightly twisted 
around his neck, was caught in the band of an engine, and his 
neck drawn down against one of the revolving shafts; the neck 
was twelve inches in circumference; while the inner circum¬ 
ference of the necktie which compressed the neck was reduced 
to eight inches. He became black in the face, and blood escaped 
from his mouth and ears; for six or seven minutes after the 
ligature was removed he remained insensible; he then revived 
and was able to speak, but could not hold up his head. When 
brought to the Hospital soon afterwards, he was sensible; his 
face was pale, lips were livid, eyes suffused, and the conjunctival 
injected; he breathed without difficulty, and only complained of 
a pain when he moved his head. The bo 3 r told Dr. Taylor, that, 
at the time of the accident he felt no pain; he had a sense of 
choking, and then became insensible; for at least one minute no 
air entered his lungs. He revived, and left the hospital in about 
eighteen days. Thus his neck had been compressed for about 
one minute, and there was a deep circular depression three- 


4 


50 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


fourths of an inch wide around it. Dr. Taylor therefore advises 
of a drawing to be made at once of the position of the body and 
surrounding objects if possible; this advice applies to all cases 
of bodies found dead under doubtful circumstances. Although 
strangulation usually means murder, certain cases of undoubted 
suicide by this method are'known to medical jurists. Wherever 
marks of fingers alone are present to explain the death, we must 
suspect murder, for the pressure applied by a would-be suicide, 
by means of his own fingers, would be relaxed so soon as he or 
she became insensible. But the methods of partial hanging, 
in reality amount to strangulation, and determined suicides 
either tighten the ligature with a stick, or by a cord passed two 
or three times around the neck and tightened bv each hand. 
Rarely, one foot or both lower extremities have been used to 
tighten the knots by twisting them in loops; sometimes one 
tight knot sufficed, or a double knot has been tried. As in the 
case of hanging, the questions which arise are usually simple, so 
it is in strangulation. The most probable questions, are: 

1. —Was death caused by strangulation, in other words, by the 
forcible compression of the throat? 

2. —Was the strangulation accidental, suicidal or homicidal? 

3. —How long since death occurred? 

To answer the first question we must inquire into “The Post- 
Mortem appearances in death by strangulation .” In the ma¬ 
jority of cases death will be due to apnoea (so called asphyxia.) 
All the appearances of this mode of death will be present, even 
more marked than in hanging; the face and extremities will be 
more livid, (violet or black) blood maj^ issue from the mouth, 
nostrils or even ears; the eyeballs will generally be prominent or 
blood shot, and the pupils dilated; the genital organs will gen¬ 
erally be turgid, as in hanging, and urine, faeces and semen will, 
in all liklihood have been discharged; the blood will be very 
dark and fluid. The principal differences between homicidal 
strangulation, and hanging will probably be: 

1st. That the mark of the rope or ligature, though perhaps 
less deep than in hanging, is more complete; that is, it is usually 
circular and goes all around the neck more horizontally than in 
hanging. There are generally other marks of violence on the 
neck or on the body. In cases of throttling or of garroting, 
there will be marks of fingers and thumbs; these, in infants or 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


51 


very young, or ve^ thin persons, may be confined to the front 
or sides of the wind-pipe. Do not forget to examine the genital 
organs and their vicinity especially in females. It is said that 
when cambric, muslin-or cashmere, are used, no marks, or slight 
marks are seen; the thugs in Persia and India are supposed to 
operate thus artistically. 


HOW THE DIFFERENT CAUSES OF DEATH 
AFFECT THE APPEARANCE 
OF THE BODY. 


Death from starvation is characterized by distinctive phe¬ 
nomena. The body is extremely emaciated, and, even though 
death were recent, exhales an acrid and fetid odor; the eyes are 
red and open, the tongue and throat dry, the stomach and intes¬ 
tines empt}', and the gall bladder distended with bile; the blood 
vessels and internal organs are comparatively destitute of blood. 
Fodere remarks that among the most noteworthy phenomena 
caused by starvation, are the offensive effluvia exhaled from the 
sufferers, the fetor of their discharges, and the rapidity with 
which the body passes in a state of putrescence. Such a condi¬ 
tion of things is peculiarly favorable to the reception of fever 
and other contagious diseases, and they acquire in such cases an 
intensity and virulence rarely seen under other circumstances. 

When life has been destroyed by the inhalation of noxious 
vapors , as, for instance, carbonic acid, and sulphurreted hydro¬ 
gen gas, the head and face are found to be swollen, the eyes pro¬ 
truded, and the tongue fixed between the teeth. The face, if 
observed soon after death, may be pale, but generally soon be¬ 
comes livid, as the blood vessels of the head and lungs, and the 
right vessels of the heart, are filled with dark fluid blood. 

When death has been caused by drowning , Dr. Marshall Hall 
says: “When the body is recovered a few hours after drowning, 
the skin is pale and cold, presenting sometimes patches of livid 
discoloration; the expression is placid, the eyes half open, the 
pupils dilated, the tongue swollen and pressed forward, and the 
lips and nostrils covered by a mucous froth; the fingers are 
sometimes found torn and abraded, and the hand grasping gravel 




52 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


or other substances which have been seized in a convulsive 
struggle at the bottom. Internally, the body presents few ap¬ 
pearances which are characteristic of the mode of .death. Of 
these, the presence of a mucous froth, sometimes stained with 
blood, and perhaps of a little water in the trachea, and of water 
in the stomach, are most noteworthy. The water contained in 
the stomach appears to be swallowed previous to death, as after 
life is extinct the opposition of the curtains of the oesophagus 
prevents the entrance of the water into the stomach.” 

Haller and Petit, both eminent authorities, agree with Capu- 
ron in thus describing the external hnd internal appearances of 
the body in a person found drowned. A drowned body usually 
presents general paleness of the skin, yet the face will be discol¬ 
ored if death was preceded by long continued struggling. It is 
to be remarked that upon exposure of the body to the air, discol¬ 
oration very rapidly ensues. The eyes may be found half open¬ 
ed, attended by dilatation of the pupils. These signs, as also 
frothing at the mouth, may proceed from other violent means, 
but still are strong proofs of drowning. Of the internal appear¬ 
ances of the body, may be mentioned a fullness, in greater or 
less degree, of the blood vessels of the head, and of the right side 
of the heart, and the blood of the drowned is generally found 
fluid. The presence of water, then, in the lungs of drowned per- 
. sons, in the form of froth, is to be considered as an accidental, 
and not essential circumstance, although it is one of very con¬ 
stant occurence. If this fluid, therefore, is found in large quan¬ 
tities and .not beaten into froth, the inference would be that it 
had passed in after death. With the respect to the presence of 
water in the stomach, it has been proved by many authors to be 
general, and when it is discovered in that organ, and is identical 
with that in which the body is found, it furnishes a strong indi¬ 
cation of submersion during life, being a necessary consequence 
of the act of deglutition, for it has been proved by Fine, Orfila 
and Marc that it is never found in bodies plunged in the water 
after death, and cannot be made to enter the stomach without 
the assistance of a tube passed into the oesophagus. 

In death by hanging, when fracture of the cervical vertebrae 
has not taken place, and life has been destroyed by strangula¬ 
tion, the signs are a livid depressed circle upon the neck, made 
by the cord; the face is distorted; the eyes are open and pro- 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


53 


truded; the face, shoulders and chest swollen. If the trachea or 
wind pipe was alone compressed, the face is pale; but when the 
veins of the neck were pressed, as by the cord, and the heart 
continues its action for some time, the blood is propelled into the 
head and causes suffusion of the face. 

When suffocation is caused by heavy external pressure, as is 
the case when a compact mass of human beings are crowded in 
a narrow space, or struggling to escape through some small open¬ 
ing, death is probably caused by respiration being incomplete 
and long deferred. The bodies of the dead exhibit peculiar ap¬ 
pearances; the face and neck are of a uniform violent tint, spot¬ 
ted with blackish ecchymosis, and in some instances blood and 
froth ooze from the mouth and nostrils. 

It may be interesting to return to the subject of drowning, and 
to notice the observations of Davergie on the appearance of the 
body in persons who may have perished by submersion. He 
found that in general no change takes place on the exterior be¬ 
fore the fourth or fifth day, and the cadaverous rigidity continues 
two, three or even four days after submersion. This is probably 
owing to the coldness of the medium into which the body is plac¬ 
ed. On the fourth or fifth day the skin on the palm of the hands 
begins to whiten, and this change of color takes place particular¬ 
ly on the ball of the thumb and the fleshy eminence in the palm 
of the hand near the little finger, and also the lateral surface of 
the fingers. The rest of the body presents nothing particular. 
On the sixth or seventh day, the skin at the back of the hand 
commences to whiten, at the same time the skin of the foot has 
acquired a similar tinge, the skin of the face is softened and of a 
more faded white than the rest of the body. On the fifteenth 
day the face is slightly swollen and red; a greenish spot com¬ 
mences to form on the skin over the middle of the breast bone; 
the hands and feet, with the exception of the dorsum of the lat¬ 
ter are quite white, and the skin of the palm of the hand is wrink¬ 
led. After one month the face is reddish-brown, the eye lids and 
lips are green and swollen, the neck is slightly green, and a spot 
of about six inches in diameter, brown in color and with a green 
areola, occupies the middle and upper part of the sternum, whilst 
the scrotum and genita organs are enormously distended with 
gas. The skin of the hands and feet are quite white and very 
much wrinkled, presenting the appearance of having been long 


54 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


enveloped in a poultice. The nails and hair are still very adher¬ 
ent. At two months the body is covered with slime, the face is 
enormously swelled and of a brown color; the lips are tumefied 
and separated so as to expose the teeth; the skin on the abdo¬ 
men, as well as that of the arms, thighs and legs, are still in a 
natural state. 

This is a most remarkable fact, and establishes a striking dif¬ 
ference between the progress of putrefaction in water, and when 
the body is exposed to the atmosphere; in the latter case, the 
abdomen being the first part to manifest any change. At this 
period, the skin has become detached from the hands and feet, 
and having the nails attached to it, form as it were a glove. The 
hair begins to fall off, and is easily detached by pulling. At 
three months, or three months and a half, there is a partial de¬ 
struction of the scalp, eye lids and nose, to such an extent as to 
make it difficult to tell the age of the individual. The hands and 
feet are completely naked of skin. At four months and a half, 
complete destruction of the scalp and features leave the skull bare, 
and the body unrecognizable. These changes may proceed more 
rapidly in very hot weather, or in putrid pools or ponds; more 
slowly in salt water, in very cold weather, and when the body 
is closely invested with clothing; but the general order of facts 
remains the same. 


TOXICOLOGY. 


Toxicants have been known in all ages, it could not be other¬ 
wise, if we consider, that these poisons which naturally present 
themselves to man, must, in early times even more, than to-day, 
have punished man for his ignorance or reckless curiosity. 

It becomes a part no less obligatory to the embalmer, to re¬ 
ceive a thorough knowledge of the within also. 

The name of poison is given to all substances which, when 
taken internally or applied externally on the human body, pro¬ 
duce either an alteration in the functions of life, or entirely de¬ 
stroy it. Vicat, and after him Fodere and Orfila, have divided 
poisons into four distinct classes. 

1st. Irritating poisons , which irritate and cause the inflamma- 




Treatise on embalming. 


55 


tion of the parts with which they come in contact, such as mer¬ 
curial and arsenical preparations, those of antimony, copper, tin, 
zinc, silver, gold, bismuth and lead, concentrated acids and alka¬ 
lies, chlorine, sodium, bromine, phosphorus, etc., for the minerals. 

Animal poisons of this class are cantharides and all vesicating 
insects. 

Vegetable poisons are hallebore, colcynthia, saphnea, colchi- 
cum. etc. 

2nd. The narcotic or stupefying poisons, chemical and phar¬ 
maceutical products, as sulphurous and hydrocianic acids, cherry 
laurel and bitter almonds water, cyanide-morphia and its salts, 
etc. Vegetal poisons; opium and its preparations, lactucaria, 
hashish. These poisons paralyze the functions of the nervous 
system. 

3d. The narcotic acrid poisons , which participate of the prop¬ 
erties of the first and second class, being both irritating and nar¬ 
cotic, as wine, alcohol, ether, chloroform, carbonic acid, oxyde of 
carbon, camphor. Vegetable poisons of this class: strychnias 
and products, tobacco, belladona, stramonium, dignitalis, ergot, 
hemlock etc. 

4th. The septic or putrefying poisons, which alter or putrefy 
the liquid of the animal economy, as sulphuretted hydrogen, 
putrified matter, the pus of malignant pustules, stings or bites of 
animals, as serpents, scorpions, spiders, tarantulas and the liquid 
of rabies. 

Poisons are known either by the effects on the living economy 
or by chemical re-agents. 

GENERAL SIGNS OF POISONING. 

Poisoning must be rightly suspected whenever the patient 
complains of a nauseous or fetid odor; of an unpleasant acid, 
alkaline or acrid savor; of a burning heat in the stomach; when¬ 
ever the mouth is parched or frothy, with lips, and gums either 
livid, black, yellow or white, with nausea and frequent vomiting 
of mucous or bilious matter, white, yellow, blue, green or red, 
effervescing after expulsion from the stomach, accompanied with 
constipation or alvine ejections more or less abundant, the pulse 
becomes frequent weak, irregular; intense thirst; respiration la¬ 
borious; cold sweat; the emission of urine difficult. We must 
also notice the alteration of the features, the color of the face 
either pale, livid or grayish; the loss of vision or hearing; the 


56 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


state of the eyes; general agitation, and the sudden change in the 
tone of the voice. 

We must not forget here, that among the symptoms above 
enumerated, there are a certain number which become suddenly* 
apparent, in strangulated hernia, or in the spontaneous perfora¬ 
tion cf the stomach or the bowels, even in the absence of any 
toxic substance to which such lesions might be attributable. 

GENERAL TREATMENT. 

The evacuation of the toxic substances is the first step to be 
taken in case of poisoning; this measure, w T hich is indispensable 
immediately after the absorption of the poison, is still exceed¬ 
ingly useful even after several hours of indigestion. To obtain 
this, administer from one-half to three-fourths of a grain of tar¬ 
tar emetic in a glass of water; this dose to be repeated three or 
four times at an interval of a few minutes; also give tepid water 
in large quantity. To render vomiting more prompt and copious 
mechanical means may be resorted to, such as titillation of the 
tonsils with a feather; an injection of the bowels with some en- 
egertic purgative must also be employed. A short time after the 
absorption of tartar emetic, the antidote must be administered. 
This counter poison which must be appropriate to the nature of 
the poison taken, as for object, either to chemically neutralize or 
transform the soluble poison into an insoluble compound, thereby 
nullifying its deleterious properties, or else to envelop the 
poisonous substance completely, and notable to diminish its fatal 
effects. Moreover, the antidote must possess the virtues of being 
perfectly safe, even when taken in large doses, as it must be ad¬ 
ministered in quantities more considerable than chemically re¬ 
quired for a neutralization of the poison, so as to be more certain 
of the result. 

GENERAL ANTIDOTES. 

In the generality of cases of poisoning, the specific nature of 
the poison is at first uncertain. In such an occurrence an anti¬ 
dote adapted to combat the effects of a large number of noxious 
substances would certainly be found of great assistance. There¬ 
upon the following have been proposed as general antidotes: 

The hydrated proto-sulphate of iron, or the hydrated per¬ 
sulphate of the same metal, against metallic poisons, also hy¬ 
drated protoxide of iron and magnesia, held in suspension in 
water, against arsenic and the metallic poisons. For septic 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


57 


poisons, animal charcoal; against the alkaloids in general, the 
preparations of antimony and opium, we have the decoction of 
nutgalls, tannin, black coffee, tea, and the decoctions of cinchona, 
and astringent roots and barks. 

We propose here as a general antidote against the metallic 
and alkaloidic poisons, also against toxic plants a mixture of 
equal parts of magnesia, hydrated peroxide of iron and animal 
charcoal. 

POISONS OF THE FIRST CLASS. 

Poisoning by the concentrated acids. 

Symptoms of poisoning by the acids have been given under the 
name of general signs of poisoning. 

Antidotes .—Calcined magnesia in water, soap suds, bicarbonate 
of soda or of potash, Spanish white, wood ashes, or carbonate of 
lime in water or in milk, sweet oil, the white of eggs beaten in 
water. If none of these ingredients be at hand, gorge the 
patient with water. 

CARBOLIC ACID. 

This acid, so extensively employed to-day in various branches 
of art and industry, has caused fatal accidents. When in a con¬ 
centrated form, its application upon the skin for a short time, 
or its fortuitous or voluntary ingestion, have proved fatal; it is 
in fact a violent poison. Calvert has recommended as the best 
antidote next and in conjunction with the stomach pump, the 
oil of sweet almonds or of olive, mixed with a certain quantity 
of castor oil. According to Mr. Husemann, the veritable anti¬ 
dote is the saccharate of lime. However it is always preferable to 
promote vomiting as quick as possible after the ingestion of the 
poison. 

CONCENTRATED ALKALIES AND THEIR SALTS. 

Symptoms .—Acrid and caustic savor, ejections from the stomach 
redden curcuma paper, and turn green the syrup of violets, hor¬ 
rible convulsions. , 

Antidotes .—Water mixed with one-tenth of vinegar, orange or 
lemon juice diluted with water, weak solutions of citric or tar¬ 
taric acid, sweet oil, albuminous water, and a great deal of 
warm water. 

PREPARATIONS OF MERCURY. 

•• Symptoms .—Metallic and acrid taste, burning sensations in the 
throat, contraction of the inner parts of the mouth, stomach and 


58 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

* 

intestines, nausea; the ejected substances do not act sensibly on 
litmus paper, hiccough, pulse quick, small, often unequal, raging 
thirst, difficulty in passing urine, cramps, cold extremities, com¬ 
plete prostration, alteration of the features, delirium. 

Antidotes. —Emetics, albuminous water, hydrosulphuretted 
mineral waters, electuary of sulphur (equal parts of sublimated 
sulphur and honey) milk, flour in water, magnesia. Albuminous 
water is made by beating the white of six eggs in a quart of 
water. Mr. Devergie prefers the yolk to the white of the egg. 
According to his authority the yolk of one egg will neutralize 
one-sixth of a grain of sublimate. A safe antidote and very 
energetic, is the gluten of Tadei—the composition whereof is as 
follows: Gluten 4-J pounds, Castile soap 1 pound, Water 1^ gal¬ 
lons. Dissolve the gluten and soap in the water; vaporize the 
liquor slowly in a shallow vessel; pulverize the residue. Six and 
one-half drachms of this powder administered in some aqueous 
vehicle will neutralize the effects of fifteen grains of sublimate. 

PREPARATIONS OF ARSENIC. 

Arsenious acid is about the only preparation of which we shall 
speak here, although we do not mean that other arsenical prepa¬ 
rations are not deleterious. It is well known that aside of the 
sulphates of arsenic, which, on account of their lack of solubility, 
are little dangerous, the artificial sulphate, which contain a large 
dose of arsenious acid in a state of non-combination, the solu¬ 
bles, arsenites, and arseniates, are almost as energetic poisons as 
arsenious acid itself. But this preparation not being so well 
known does not play so important a role in the annals of toxi¬ 
cology. 

This destructive action of arsenious acid has been known for 
a long time. The aqua Nopoli, and the aqua Toffana, celebrated 
poisons of the middle ages in Italy and France, had for a basis 
arsenious acid. 

The importance of arsenious acid as a toxic, makes it a duty 
for us to speak for it at more length, and to give more precise 
details than we have done for others. 

WHY IS ARSENIC A POISON ? 

The question of how arsenical compounds act as poisons has 
been discussed by Binz and Schulz, as follows: Liebig seems to 
have been up to the present time, the only author who had ad¬ 
vanced any theory as to the poisonous action of arsenic. In the 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


59 


first edition of his work, that of 1843, on the relation of chemis¬ 
try to agriculture and physiology, he states his views essentially 
as follows: Arsenious acid and corrosive sublimate possess in a 
high degree the power of forming with albumen solid compounds. 
When these substances are taken internally, the albumen of the 
living tissues thereby loses the power of undergoing those trans¬ 
formations which are necessary to their existence. In this way 
the life of important parts is destroyed and the death of the 
whole being is the result. 

Liebig did not afterwards uphold this story, although it is still 
to be found in some chemical hand-books. It has been abandon¬ 
ed for this reason: That a solution of arsenious acid, or one of 
its salts, does not form the solid compounds (albuminates) as 
Liebig at first supposed, while this is undoubtedly the case with 
corrosive sublimate among others. There is, in fact, no single 
case known where arsenious acid produces any stronger precipi¬ 
tation of the constituents of the body, than does carbonic acid 
for example. 

This non-existence of an arsenical albuminate is also proven 
by the fact, that an animal can be poisoned by the introduction 
of an arsenical solution without the spots where it was introduc¬ 
ed, even if it is the extremely sensitive conjunction of the eye, 
showing anything more than a slight redness. In the interior of 
the body, on the other hand, the changes are very clearly seen. 
The stomach is the central point of all these, even in cases where 
no trace of the poison has come in direct contact with it. Anat¬ 
omical investigations show us that those very tissues of the body 
which are especially capable of taking up the oxygen of the 
blood are the very furnaces of disturbance. 

The neutral salts of arsenic acid are just as poisonous as those 
of the arsenious acid, and some say, more so. Arsenious acid 
can readily be converted into arsenic acid, and the latter passes 
still more easily into the former. The latter process is aided by 
albumen in general; the former only by the living albumen of 
plants and animals. 

The experiments were first made outside of the organism with 
single parts. White of egg and fibrine from warm blooded ani¬ 
mals were digested with arsenic acid, at the temperature of the 
body, and were found to reduce it to arsenious acid; fresh brains 
do the same. 


CO 


Treatise on embalming. 


The tissues of the digestive organs, as well as the liver and 
the undecomposed protoplasm of plants, not only reduced arsenic 
acid to arsenious acid, but also oxydized arsenious acid to arsen¬ 
ic acid. If the tissues which are able to oxydize the lower to 
the higher acid are previously heated to boiling water, they lose 
this property. Blood, haemoglobin and fresh fat, do not possess 
either one or the other action. 

This double property can be proven in living animals. The 
two different oxides of arsenic acid are converted, the one into 
the other, by the lining of the intestines, which, in cases of pois¬ 
oning, belong to those parts which are first and most violently 
affected. On the other hand, those parts which in life are touch¬ 
ed, or only later and secondarily, are not able to start these 
changes, especially to oxidize arsenious acid. 

Careful and accurate consideration of all the details lead to the 
conclusion that the conversion and reconversion of these acids 
into one another in the animal body, causes a violent vibration 
of the oxygen atoms in the molecules of living albumen, where¬ 
by the tissues are corroded until totally destroyed. 

In this respect there is a perfect parallelism between nitrogen 
and phosphorus. Nitric oxide is excessively poisonous. By 
taking up oxygen, it is converted into violently oxidizing hypo- 
nitric acid. It destroys the tissues, while it is in part reconvert¬ 
ed with absorption of water into nitric oxide. In the whole re¬ 
action the nitrogen takes no direct part. It is merely the inert 
carrier and distributer of the powerfully aggressive active oxy¬ 
gen atom. Arsenic plays the same role here, where it appears as 
the carrier of active oxygen; that is, it is every instant passing 
from arsenious acid to arsenic acid and back again to the former 
acid. 

The distinctions between arsenic and nitrogen are only grad¬ 
ual. The oxides of nitrogen attack the parts where they enter 
the organism; the oxides of arsenic at first develop their activity 
within themselves, and it is only by long activity that they are 
recognized as corrosive without. The active oxygen of nitric 
oxide instantly tears itself loose, but that of arsenic acid requires 
some time, and that is the reason why the latter first shows its 
destructive effects within the organism. That such oxygen 
atoms possess poisonous properties is evident from the well 
known poisonous action of ozone when it passes into the organ- 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


61 


ism, except in an exceedingly dilute form. This has recently 
been shown, too, in the case' of chlorates. They give up their 
three atoms of oxygen to certain constituents of the body, being 
reduced to chlorides, and thereby act corrosive and destructive 
to the cells and the blood. 

The other members of the nitrogen group show a remarkable 
coincidence, both in their chemical and poisonous properties. 
Antimony, bismuth and vanadium pass rapidly from one degree 
of oxidation to another. Phosphorus generates ozone in the 
body as well as in the air, and thus destroys the albumen. The 
good effects of these as remedies can also be traced to the action 
of their active oxygen. 

Symptoms .—Arsenious acids act in a manner analogous on the 
animal system. Dr. Baude states: Whatever may be its mode 
of introduction, whether it be through the digestive organs, or 
the natural openings, as the vagina or rectum; by absorption 
through a wound, or again by being injected into the veinous 
system, in all cases it has for effect to augment the secretions, it 
brings on convulsions, it completely destroys irritability, and 
finally produces death. 

The similitude of results conclusively demonstates that this 
poison only acts after absorption, and these effects are the more 
prompt as the poison is more rapidly carried into the circulation; 
and the injection into the veins, or the absorption into a wound, 
produces effects more subtile and rapid than when introduced 
into the stomach or absorbed by other mucous surfaces. It has 
happened that larger doses of this acid have been taken without 
causing anj’ derangement of the vital functions for several hours 
afterward, whilst at other times the effects were very rapid. 
Thus we see the results may be modified according to the form 
under which the poison has been administered. For instance, it 
is easily understood that the vitreous acid being more soluble 
than the opaque will act more rapidly, and that if the poison is 
soluble in the substance which serves it, as a vehicle, the effect 
will still be more prompt, as everything else being equal, the 
absorption will be more easy. 

Symptoms. —Nausea, and ejection of mucous matter mixed 
with blood. Vomiting does not generally take place until several 
hours after the injection of the poison, and then successively 
appear precursive anxiety, burning pains in the region of the 


62 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


stomach; colic, followed by alvine stools; great thirst, with a 
feeling of constriction of the oesophagus; drinks of the most 
emollient sorts a,re rejected; the pulse is full and frequent; the 
heart beats strongly; the face and the body prespire freely; 
breeding is impeded; the face assumes a congested appearance; 
and eruption, accompanied with a sensation of pricking, resem¬ 
bling that of nettles, covers the body; often convulsions with 
intense pains drive the patient to despair; at last complete pros¬ 
tration takes place, followed by an apparent calmness; a cold 
sweat covers the body; the pulsations of the heart become 
slower and irregular, and death finds the patient in a state of 
complete prostration. 

Antidotes .—Promote vomiting, and at the same time admin¬ 
ister the hydrated gelatinous peroxide of iron in large doses—in 
fact gorge the patient with it, three or four pounds if necessary; 
mix it in sweetened water. If the gelatinous oxide is not to be 
obtained immediately, use the peroxide dry, as commonly found 
in the shops, and mix with sweetened water. 

Messrs. Bouchardat and Sandrans propose also hydrated mag¬ 
nesia. If the above substances cannot be readily had, adminis¬ 
ter pure lime water, mixed with oil or milk, or powdered char¬ 
coal in sweetened water; mucilaginous drinks, potions of sweet 
almond oil or olive oil; albuminous or sulphurous water, even 
well water from a calcareous soil. 

The hydrated peroxide of iron was presented in 1834 by Dr. 
Bunsen as an antidote against arsenious' acid; and it can be 
safely asserted that according to numerous experiments on the 
human or animal species, it has proved one of the best and most 
energetic counter poisons, provided, however, it is administered 
before the absorption of the poison in the systen. Its action is 
altogether a chemical one; it forms with the arsenious acid an 
arsenite of iron, which being insoluble has no longer any effects 
upon the human organism. It has been estimated that seven 
and one-half drachms of dry hydrated peroxide of iron will neu¬ 
tralize one and one half grains of arsenious acid. 

Magnesia, which was at first proposed in 1795 by Mr. Maudel, 
remained in oblivion until 1846, when Mr. Bussy demonstrated 
that its properties as an antidote of arsenious acid were far supe¬ 
rior to those of the peroxide of iron. First, because it is more 
easily procured than the peroxide. Second, because its laxative 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


63 


properties produce more rapidly the expulsion of the poison. 
Magnesia must be administered in excess, stirred in water, and 
must be but slightly calcined. 

Mr. Blondlot, after varied and numerous experiments with 
fatty substances, as oil, butter and milk, as antidotes of arseni- 
ous acid, was led to the conclusion that in certain cases they 
might be used as counter poisons of this acid by retarding its 
dissolution, hence its absorption. 

In poisoning by the preparations of copper, bismuth, tin, zinc, 
iron, silver and gold, the symptoms are similar to those of the 
mercurial preparations, and the antidotes are the same. 

PREPARATIONS OF LEAD. 

Symptoms .—(Taste) sweet, astringent, metallic, very disagree¬ 
able; contraction of the throat. 

Antidotes. —Solutions of sulphate of soda, or of magnesia; 
albuminous water; lemonade, either tartaric or sulphuric mag¬ 
nesia. 

CHLORINE, IODINE, BROMINE. 

Symptoms .—Intense contraction in the breast, especially if 
caused by chlorine, suffocation, bloody expectorations. If caused 
by iodine or bromine, nausea; parched throat; vomiting of yel¬ 
lowish substances with an odor of bromine or iodine. 

Antidotes.—For chlorine, ammoniated water; magnesia; albu¬ 
minous water. For iodine or bromine , starch, milk, albumine. 
Poisoning by bromine could be treated by the iodide of sodium, 
and iodine by the bromide of sodium. 

NARCOTIC POISONS-SECOND CLASS. 

These poisons comprise aniline, codein, morphia, opium, laud¬ 
anum, bitter almonds, cyanide of potassium, hydrocianic, cyanhy- 
dric or prussic acid. All of the above are narcotic poisons in 
their effects. 

Symptoms .—Stupor; feeling of heaviness in the head, ten¬ 
dency to sleep; haggard looks; pupils of the eye either contract¬ 
ed or distended, sometimes almost natural; delirium, either furi¬ 
ous or excessive joy’; hallucinations; pains and convulsions in 
certain parts of the body; paralysis of the legs; pulse variable; 
vomiting, especially when the poison has been applied on some 
part of the body deprived of the cuticle. 

Treatment. —Excite vomiting; this result being obtained, give 
acidulated drinks; give a decoction of coffee against narcotism; 


64 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


frictions on all parts of the body are useful; also bleeding in the 
arm or the jugular. If the patient is struck with apoplexy, the 
same course must be followed if the poison has been applied in¬ 
ternally, but in that case vomiting must not be checked. Mr. 
Bussy advises in this case the use of magnesia. We must add 
here also that all mineral alkalies as well as charcoal are useful. 

In cases of poisoning by prussic acid excite vomiting; the 
chlorine water for aspirations; ammoniated water; applications 
of ice water on the head, back of the neck, and all along the 
the spinal column; leeches behind the ears; bleeding of the arm 
or jugular; rub the temples with tincture of cantharides and 
ammonia, mustard plasters at the feet. Unhappily none of these 
means are certain, as the lightning-like action of the poison, par¬ 
ticularly on warm blooded animals, is especially due to its me¬ 
chanical action in stopping almost suddenly the oxydation of the 
blood. It was stated that the salts of iron might be efficacious 
as an antidote of prussic acid; there exists no longer any doubt 
about it. The salts of iron are generally administered in the 
following formula: Ten grains sulphate of iron dissolved in six 
ounces of sweetened water, to be taken simultaneously with 
three and one-half drachms of carbonate of soda in solution. 

The antidote generally adopted for the cyanide or cyanuret of 
potassium, is the sesquioxide of iron. Prussic acid and the 
cyanide of potash disappear completely in the body by the pro¬ 
cess of putrefaction. 

EFFECTS OF THE POISONS OF THE THIRD CLASS. 

Symptoms .—Excitation of the brain and the spinal marrow; 

general and convulsive stiffness; head thrown back; difficult 

\ 

breathing; abdominal pains; tendency to vomit, inclination to 
sleep; eminent danger of asphyxia. 

Antidotes .— Excite vomiting; purgatives; bleeding; iodine 
water; tannin; infusion of nutgalls; tea; coffee; magnesia; char¬ 
coal, or general antidotes. 

This class includes the following poisons: strychnia, brucine— 
which, when administered repeatedly in infinite small doses, pro¬ 
duces all the symptoms of an exhaustive and lingering sickness 
until death ensues, and which scarcely leaves any traces—digi- 
taline and chloroform. 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


65 


POISONS OF THE FOURTH CLASS. 

Including snake bites, introduction of septic poisons into the 
system by cuts or punctures of the scalpel in the dissecting 
room, sores, cuts, bruises on the hands, and abrasion of the skin. 

External Treatment .—Make a hrm ligature, not too tight, im¬ 
mediately above the wound; compress the parts surrounding to 
assist bleeding and the ejection of the virus; cauterize either 
with a hot iron, lunar caustic, chloride of antimony, chloride of 
zinc, or nitric acid; concentrated sulphuric acid, liquor ammonia, 
or the following solution: Iodine, 18 grains; Iodide of Potash, 
1 drachm; Water, 2 ounces. 

Internal Treatment .—Calming and sudorific potions, subcu¬ 
taneous injections of ammonia. Dr. Dusourd speaks of numer¬ 
ous cures effected by the use internally and externally of olive oil. 

Bites and Stings of Insects. —If the symptoms are light, rub 
on the wound tincture of iron, volatile liniment, or a few drops of 
ammonia in one or two teaspoonsful of cologne water. During 
the heat of the summer, and if the symptoms are alarming, if the 
insect is likely to have fed on venomous plants, or putrefying 
bodies, or on carrion, and if there is danger of a malignant pos- 
tule; cauterize the wound as above, after extracting from the 
wound the sting which might have remained behind; apply also 
liquid carbolic acid on the wound. 

ABSORPTION OF POISONS. 

As a general rule, whatever may be the surface or texture to 
which a poison is applied, it is absorbed and circulated with the 
blood before it begins to manifest its effects. Liquid poisons 
„ when swallowed are more rapidl}’ absorbed than those which are 
solid. Soluble poisons, such as the cyanide of potassium, are 
absorbed more rapidly than those which are insoluble, and the 
larger the quantity of fluid in which the poison is taken, the 
more rapidly it is carried into the circulation. Some solid sub¬ 
stances which are little soluble (arsenious acid) are, however, 
very soon absorbed in sufficient proportion to produce well mark¬ 
ed symptoms. Others which are not very soluble in water may 
become dissolved in the acid secretions of the stomach and are 
then absorbed. The carbonate of lead, and the arsenite of cop¬ 
per, furnish us with instances of this action. 


5 


66 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

Absorption varies in its action and rapidity, not only accord¬ 
ing to the state of the poison, but according to the nature of the 
surface to which it is applied. It takes place slowly through the 
unbroken skin; nevertheless, symptoms of incipient narcotism 
have been known to arise during the application of an opiate lin¬ 
iment to the back. Belladona, creosote, prussic acid, morphia, 
and numerous other agents, have a well known action by absorp¬ 
tion through the skin. 

The frequent handling of pewter and lead has been known to 
give rise to symptoms of poisoning by lead, and the effects of 
mercurial poisoning may be produced by the application of mer¬ 
cury in a finely divided state to the skin. 

When the cuticle is removed and the surface of the true skin 
is laid bare, then the absorption of poision takes place with much 
greater rapidity. Any ulcer or wound is a ready medium for the 
absorption of poison. Arsenic, as well as all mineral and vegeta¬ 
ble poisons, may thus give rise to a train of S 3 ^mptoms similar to 
those caused by the introduction of the poison into the stomach 
and bowels, and the applications of quack preparations contain¬ 
ing these poisons to scirrhous ulcers, has, in several instances, 
caused death with the usual symptoms. Sometimes the sub¬ 
stance itself acts chemically upon the skin, removes the cuticle, 
and thus leads to complete absorption. 

Absorption occurs with great rapidity when the poison is in¬ 
troduced into the cellular tissues beneath the skin, and small 
quantities have been known to produce powerful effects. Thus 
Orfila found that from half a grain to a grain of arsenic in pow¬ 
der was sufficient to kill a dog under these circumstances. This 
mode of poisoning is generally confined in a human subject. To 
those cases which arise from the bite of rabid animals or veno¬ 
mous serpents, or in which by accident noxious animal matter is 
introduced into a wound , the general conclusion from these 
experiments is that but a small quantity of poison is required to 
destroy life, and that the effects of poisons are more rapidly man¬ 
ifested when they are brought into direct contact with the cellu¬ 
lar membrane, than under any other circumstances. 

Some poisons—the woovara and the poison of serpents (eclii- 
dine,) which are readily absorbed through a wound, appear to 
resist the absorbing action of the stomach. Dr. Spooner states, 
that he has administered the poison of glanders through the 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


67 


mouth without any injury whatever, but the point of a lancet 
charged with this virus and inserted into the tlesh, is sufficient 
to propagate the disorder in all its virulence. 

The mucous membrane of the lungs, by reason of its thinness, 
its great extent and the absence of protecting epitherial surface 
in the air cells, is well adapted for absorbing aerial poisons, and 
at once conveying them into the blood. The action of the pois¬ 
onous gases, sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid, furnish 
instances of the rapidity with which poisons produce their effect 
through the lungs. It is through this medium that poisonous- 
miasmata and the poisons of contagious diseases are received 
into the body. 

IODIDE OF STARCH IN FOISONING. 

As a general antidote in poisoning, Dr. Bellini, in a paper read 
before the Medical Society of Florence, Italy, recommends iodide 
of starch. It is tree from any disagreeable taste, and does not 
possess the irritating properties of iodine, so that it can be ad¬ 
ministered in large doses. He has made numerous experiments, 
and states as a result of these, that at a temperature of the stom- 
^ ach, and in the presence of the gastric juice, the iodine combines 
with many of the poisons, forming in some cases insoluble com¬ 
pounds, in others soluble compounds, which are harmless so long 
as they do not exist in too large quantities. He recommends it as 
safe in cases where the nature of the poison is unknown, and as 
especially efficient in cases of poisoning by the alkaloids and 
alkaline sulphides, by ammonia, and especially by those alka¬ 
loids with which iodine forms insoluble compounds. In cases of 
poisoning by salts of lead and mercury, it aids the elimination of 
these compounds. In cases of acute poisoning, an emetic should 
be employed soon after the administration. 

ZYMOTIC CONTAGION. 

Professor Lyndall asserts that diseases are propagated not by 
effluvia or sewer gas, but by solid particles discharged into the 
atmosphere by currents of air and gas. This he proved by the 
following experiment: He cut up a piece of steak, steeped in 
water, heated it, at a little above the temperature of the blood, 
then strained off the liquor; in a short time, this fluid became 
turbid, and when examined through the microscope was found to 
be swarming with living organism; by the application of heat 
these were killed, and when the solution was filtered he obtained 


68 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

a perfectly pure liquid, which, if kept free from particles of dust, 
would remain pure for an unlimited period of time, but if a ily 
were to dip its leg in fluid containing living organism and then 
into the pure liquid, the whole would be swarming with animal- 
culae in forty-eight hours. 

BACTERIA IN THE AIR. 

By a certain process M. Miquel has succeeded in seizing and 
numbering the spores or eggs of bacteria, and, while confirming 
M. Pasteur’s observations that the}^ are always present in the air, 
shows that their number presents incessant variations. Very 
small in winter, it increases in spring, is very high in summer 
and autumn, then sinks rapidly when frosts set in. This law 
also applies to spores of champignons; but while the spores of 
moulds are abundant in wet periods, the number of aerial bacteria 
becomes very small, and it only rises again when drouth pre- 
vades the soil, a time when the spores or moulds become rare. 
Thus, to the maxima of moulds correspond the minima of bac¬ 
teria, and reciprocally. In summer and autumn, at Montsouris, 
one finds frequently one thousand germs of bacteria in a cubic 
metre of air. In winter the number not uncommonly descends to 
four or five, and on some days the dust from two hundred liters 
of air proves incapable of causing infection of liquors the most 
alterable. In the interior of houses, and in absence of mechani¬ 
cal movements raising dust from the surface of objects, the air 
becomes fertilizing only in volume of thirty to fifty liters. In 
M. Miquel’s laboratory, the dust of five liters usually serves to 
effect the alteration of neutral bouillon. In the Paris sewers, in¬ 
fection of the same liquor is produced b}^ particles in one liter of 
the air. 

These results differ considerably, it is pointed out, from those 
published by Tyndall, who says, a few cubic centimetres of air 
will, in most cases, bring infection into the most diverse - infusions. 
M. Miquel compared the number of deaths from contagious and 
epidemic diseases in Paris with the number of bacteria in the 
air during the period from December, 1879, to June, 1880, and, 
certainly, each recradesence of aerial bacteria was followed at 
about eight days interval by an increase of the deaths in ques¬ 
tion. Unwilling to say positively that this is more than a mere 
coincidence, he projects further observations regarding it. M- 
Miquel further finds (contrary to some authors) that the water 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


69 


vapor which rises from the ground, from rivers, from masses in 
full putrefaction, is always micrographically pure, that gases 
trom buried matter in course of decomposition are always ex¬ 
empt from bacteria, and that even im-pure air sent through put¬ 
refied meat, far from being charged with microbes, is entirely 
purefied, provided only the putrid filter be in a state of moisture 
comparable to that of earth at 0.30 metre from the surface of the 
ground. 


POST MORTEM EXAMINATIONS. 


Before commencing the work of embalming, and even while 
laying out a corpse, it is always necessary to make an inspection 
of the surface of the body. The minuteness of the inspection 
will depend upon the character of the case, and in a great meas¬ 
ure, dictate the course of treatment to be followed so as to insure 
success. It also behooves the operator, for his own safety, to 
look for evidences of skin diseases, ulcers, abscesses etc.; the 
glands, penis and prepuce are to be carefully examined for syph¬ 
ilitic cicatrices. 

It is customary to find certain changes in the external appear¬ 
ance of the body, which are due to the cessation of vitality in the 
tissues and the commencement of decomposition. I speak now 
of bodies which have not yet been buried, and which have been 
kept in the ordinary way partly covered, and lying on the back 
on the bed or cooling board. If the bodies have been left in their 
ordinary clothes, the appearances are just the same. In such 
bodies, one of the first noticeable changes, is the paleness of the 
skin and its mottling with irregular livid patches. After a short 
time the blood settles in the vessels of the more dependent por¬ 
tions of the body, and the skin which covers the back of the 
trunk and extremities becomes of a livid color. 

In many cases if we cut through the skin, we find the tissues 
beneath congested and infiltrated with bloody scum; in bodies 
which have been kept for a number of days in cold weather, this 
red color is also seen on the anterior portions of the body, es 
pecially on the face and neck. In hot weather, the red color is 
very soon altered by decomposition; if the epidermis has been 




70 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


detached at any point, the skin beneath this is dry, hard and red. 
In warm weather, we may find, a few hours after death, broad 
bluish lines, corresponding to the cutaneous veins, ramifying in 
the skin of the neck and thorax. These lines are formed by the 
escape of the coloring matter of the blood from the vessels. 

Within a few hours after death, even in cold weather, there is 
usually some escape of bloody froth and mucous from the mouth 
and nose. If the eyelids are not closed, the cornea soon become 
dry, brown and hard, the eyeballs also become flaccid. After a 
considerable time the skin of the abdomen becomes green; still 
later, decomposition fairly sets in. The entire body is of a dark 
green color; the tissues are infiltrated with serum, the abdomen 
is distended with gas, then the color changes from a green to a 
reddish brown; the epidermis is detached; the skin is covered 
with maggots; the entire body is swollen from the formation of 
gases; the face can hardly be recognized; the nails drop off, and 
the scalp becomes detached. 

When a body is in this condition it can hardly be determined 
whether a month or five months have elapsed since death occured. 
After this, all the soft parts change into a formless, pustulent 
mass. The cavities are open, the viscera is indistinguishable, 
and the bones are left bare. 

The rapidity with which these changes take place, vary 
under the influence of a great number of conditions. The bodies 
of infants usually decompose more rapidly than those of adults; 
fat bodies putrefy quicker than lean ones; the bodies of persons 
who die suddenly from violence, decompose less rapidly than the 
average, unless the body be considerably mangled. Exhausting 
diseases, fevers, and the puerperal condition, are followed by 
rapid decomposition, as is also death from suffocating gases. 
Poisoning by alcohol, arsenic and by sulphuric acid, may preserve 
the bodies for an unusual length of time. Atmospheric air, 
moisture and warmth quicken decomposition. At the same 
temperature, a body which has been for one week in the air, one 
which has been two weeks in the water, and one which has been 
eight weeks buried in the usual way, will all exhibit the same 
degree of decomposition. 

That too much care cannot be used in handling the bodies of 
persons who have died of certain diseases, especially when their 
bodies are to be subjected to the embalming process, which 


treatise on embalming. 


71 


operation is rendered extreme^ dangerous to the embalmer, from 
the fact that the hands must perforce, come into direct contact 
with the denuded tissues, the blood, or some vitiated secretion 
of the body. 

This chapter may prove tedious to some, but it is, however, an 
undeniable fact, that the preceding information (compiled by F. 
Delafield, M. D., on Morbid Anatomy) is of the utmost impor¬ 
tance to the professional undertaker. The external examination 
of the body, before handling, is a matter not to be neglected. 
Should any syphilitic sores, or foul ulcers, be present, the utmost 
caution must be used in handling the body, as the pus, which is 
a most virulent poison, might find its way into the system through 
some abraision of the skin. The effects of this poison are such, 
that, should it not prove fatal, it will leave in the system traces 
that can never be completely eradicated. 


MORBID POISON AND DISINFECTANTS. 

By morbid poison we understand a product which is the sup¬ 
posed specific cause of certain specific diseases—of syphilis, for 
instance; of scarlatina, of typhus, of glanders, of small pox, of 
hydrophobia, and the like— a product which has many striking 
differences from all other poisons, but chiefly this: first, that 
while other poisons (oxalic, or hydrocianic acid, or sulphuretted 
hydrogen) act directly in proportion to their dose, becoming more 
or less deadly as more of them are brought to bear on the or¬ 
ganism. You may observe, on the contrary, that morbid poison 
(the poison of contagion) produces its characteristic results, 
when given in the manifest conceivable doses, just as surely, 
and just as deadly, as when the system is saturated with it; and 
secondly, that when poisons diminish from the body, or at the 
most, remain stationary during the production of their effects, 
morbid poisons apparently undergo, within the body on which 
they act, a striking and singular increase. 

The phenomena which follow infection with a morbid poison 
consists of certain local changes, attended by a peculiar constitu¬ 
tional state. 

The local changes may be generalized, as sub-acute inflam- 




72 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


matory processes attended, perhaps preceeded, by the deposition 
of a specific material, which material in most cases contains an 
agent capable by inoculation, of producing in another person 
the same sa mptoms as have attended its own generation in the 
original sufferer. 

The peculiar constitutional state is one essentially of depres¬ 
sion, modified no doubt, and intermixed with those phenomena 
of reaction, which the living bod}', like a spring, always opposes 
to the direct pressure of exterior influences. And now to con¬ 
nect these phenomena with a cause, let us examine what takes 
place when small pox is inocculated. This will do as an instance 
of infection. 

If you puncture the arm of a healthy person, not previously 
defended by vaccination or otherwise, with a lancet which has 
pricked the postule of a person afflicted with small pox, a little 
dry animal matter may have remained on the point of the lancet, 
and what then will be the result? On the second da)' after the 
operation if the part be viewed through a lense, there appears an 
orange colored siain about the incission, and the surrounding 
skin seems contracted. On the following day a minute papular 
elevation of the skin is perceptible, which on the fourth day is 
transformed into a vessicle with a depressed center. The 
patient perceives an itching in the part. On the sixth day some 
pain and stiffness are felt in the axilla or arm pit, proving the 
absorption of the virus into the general mass of blood. Occa¬ 
sionally on the seventh, but generally on the eight day, rigors 
occur, accompanied sometimes with faintishneas, sometimes with 
pains in the back, headache, or vomiting. The patient com¬ 
plains of a disagreeable taste in the mouth, and the breath is 
offensive, soon after which the eruption shows itself. If the 
patient be a woman, and pregnant, her foetus will generally have 
been affected, and if so will have died. Finally, when the erup¬ 
tion has developed itself, you find that any one of these new 
pustules inherits the infective power of that, from which they 
were developed; and thus from one patient you can obtain enough 
morbid poison to diffuse small pox throughout the habitable 
globe in an inconceivable short space of time. If you observe 
this immense increase of material, and remember the almost im¬ 
perceptible stain on the point of the lancet, than you have its 
material reproduced by a thousand fold—a million fold multipli- 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


73 


cation. But it is not only by inoculation, i. e. by breach of sur¬ 
face, that the disease can propagate itself to the body of a previous 
healthy person. As I have already stated, the foetus in utero 
may contract the disease from its mother; therefore the material 
cause of the phenomena is soluble; for between the circulating 
system of mother and child there can be no other communication 
than by fluid matter. And further, the material is volatile, for 
persons having no contact with the patient either directly or 
(except for the atmosphere) indirectly, are likewise liable to 
contract the disease. 

Finally, material of the blood in which the virus of small pox 
effects this peculiar change, seems, through a normal constituent 
no essential one; for the patient convalescent from small pox 
though with no demonstrable trace of that constituent in his 
blood, returns to at least as good health as he enjoyed previously. 
It may be added, too, that in a certain very small proportion this 
material ingredient of the blood appears to be not uniformly 
present, for there are persons (apparently undefended by any 
previous occurrence of the disease, or bj 7 other known means) 
in whom the original inoculation would have failed—persons 
who would have shown a nonifectibility by the poison and who 
therefore must (at least for the time) have been without that 
material in their blood which constitutes the susceptibility to the 
disease. The line of argument which I have followed in regard 
to small pox, leads to very similar, though not identical results in 
respect of measles, scarlatina, typhus, glander, plague, etc. 
There is the same evidence that a certain definable state of the 
blood is one of the conditions for the formation of the disease. 

But there is a very common disease which introduces some 
new difficulties in the theory of disease—I mean syphilis. If you 
inoculate syphilis, or if by some untoward accident the secretion 
of a chancre, or bubo, or other syphilitic sore, is inoculated 
through some abrasion, cut, bruise, or breach of surface, you get, 
almost certainly, a pustule at the spot, rapidly followed by in¬ 
duration and by a considerable local increase of the poison. For 
wherever that induration extends, there you have the character¬ 
istic infective material of the disease. But presently that in¬ 
duration soften itself, the ulcer which was seated upon it be¬ 
comes cicatrized, and the patient flatters himself with the con¬ 
viction of recovery. Six weeks afterwards, more or less, this 


74 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


conviction begins to be disturbed; some general indisposition 
attacks the patient—not quite such as I described after the in¬ 
oculation of smallpox, not so acute or severe—but a feeling of 
being out of sorts, and a feeling of general feverishness and ma¬ 
laria in the midst of which appears the characteristic of syphilis. 

I may take this opportunity of exlpaining to you a difficulty 
which arises in the doctrine of morbid poisons from considering 
the mitigation which their severity often appears to undergo, 
when they are infected by artificial inoculation. It appears that 
while infection is the certain test and evidence of certain ma¬ 
terials in the blood, inoculation is, in many cases, a much finer 
test, than can be afforded by atmospheric inhalation; and, as the 
severity of symptoms will be in proportion to that chemical state 
of the individual by which he is infectible, so I would explain 
frequent comparative mildness of inoculated small pox. 

By inhalation of the volatile virus, fewer would be affected, 
but those few would have the disease severely. This method of 
infection, including only those persons who have a great abun¬ 
dance of the material which renders infection possible, and who 
would naturally suffer much, while the process of inoculation 
(being, as I expressed it, a finer test) will elicit evidence of the 
disease for a far larger number of persons, will include many who 
possess a minimum of the symptom—producing material, and 
who, for that very reason, will suffer this disease in its mildest 
form. On the same principle I would explain that other fact, 
well known in practice, that on the first invasion of an epidemic, 
the proportion of mortality is greatest; while later in its progress 
the proportion of recovery is increased. 

With respect to that well known deleterious agent which 
arises in the decomposition of vegetable matters —the paludal 
poison —which is the cause of the milder ague of our climate 
and the deadly malarious fevers of the tropics. That it is a 
material poison, capable of effecting entry into the blood, and 
not any mere physical influence inherent in the soil, seems cer¬ 
tain. We can trace its operation in a definite line of progress 
through space, and can observe it becoming arrested by material 
impediments, by trees, or by a line of buildings; it is soluble, 
for it has a difficulty in crossing water—probably from under¬ 
going solution there; heat is its great evolver; watery moisture 
its chief vehicle. Whether it consist in some complicated 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


75 


organic product, or is of a simpler constitution, I am not able 
to decide; but I may here say that the late Dr. Daniel! in analyz¬ 
ing the deadly waters of the Gambia, found in them no unnatural 
quality but one—they contained a considerable quantity of sul- 
phurettcl hydrogen. 

In intimate, but most obscure relation to those paludal poisons, 
stands the unknown cause of the so called Asiatic cholera , an 
influence which is migratory, moving in definable line round the 
globe and affecting large regions in succession, but yet, in its 
migrations evincing so singular a preference for malarial districts 
that it might be called epichorial rather than epidemic, and we 
might not improbably conjecture of its wandering cause, that it 
consists of some agent capable of determining a secondary modi¬ 
fication, in whatever malarious atmosphere it may traverse. 

Whether the primary influence be aerial, telluric, or even astral, 
we are quite ignorant. We only know that in some parts of Asia it 
is now constant, and that periodically it tends of a while to enlarge 
the area of its operations, advancing with each year more and 
more, till its shadow encircles the globe, and then retreating again 
within its original locus. In its European excursions it has pre¬ 
vailed for three years, returning each autumn in the localities 
first affected by it, with a severity gradual, both as to its increase 
and its decline. On its communicability from person to person 
proof has never yet been given; but of the intensely poisoned 
condition of the district in which it prevails, innumerable records 
bear evidence. In all probability the disease spreads indepen¬ 
dent of an} r personal intercourse, and the power of infection may 
be considered an appurtenance of the district rather than a 
propert}' of the suffered. The eliminative acts caused by the 
poison of cholera are among the most violent manifestations of 
disease, stripping off the epithelium of the intestinal canal, and 
purging of fluid by stool, and vomit, with a rapidity which liter¬ 
ally desiecates and shrivels the patient, so that his blood, by 
reason of its extreme inspissation, is rendered incapable of its 
normal functions. There is a degree of its operation however, in 
which the choleraic poison, like that of yellow fever, may kill 
and leave no sign. Death may occur from its intensest action, 
even within a few minutes. “When the cholera reached Muscat 
(says Dr. Williams) in some instances only ten minutes elapsed 
from the time of the first seizure until life was extinct; and at 


76 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


Punderpore, the disease is said to have raged with such severity 
that 360 persons died in the streets, stumbling over each other 
lifeless;” or according to another authority, “as if knocked down 
by lightning.” It is useless to say that in such cases no char¬ 
acteristic morbid appearance could be found in the solid 
organs of the body. And now, to return, to the truly morbid 
poisons (for 1 do not include the paludal poison in this phrase, 
except where I distinctly mention it.) I have spoken with some 
decision of two conditions as necessary to the infection of disease; 
first of course, the existence of the poison; secondly, the ex¬ 
istence of some other substance, an ingredient of the blood, over 
which the poison exercises a peculiar influence. I do not con¬ 
sider this statement to embody any particular theory. I consider 
it to be the simplest generalization of facts which lie within the 
sphere of our daily observations, partly by reason of the regener¬ 
ative power of the poison, and partly to overcome difficulties 
which arise in the question from considering the migration of 
epidemic diseases. Dr. Holland and Professor Henle have argu¬ 
ed, that perhaps the essence of a morbid poison might be a living 
thing; that the poison might be contagium animatum; that epi¬ 
demic fevers and their allied disorders, might be consequences of 
a parasitic developement in the body. Tlius would be explained, 
thought these writers, the latency of diseases after infection, the 
spread of epidemics and the reproduction of the poison within an 
infected organism. But this theory can hardly be accepted as 
an explanation of the fact, as parasitic diseases from first to last, 
are perhaps from all known maladies the most essentialy local. 

From these remarks on the general nature of the infective 
process, we notice that the surfaces and organs most prone to 
affection by the diseases under consideration are those which are 
eliminating and defecating; those, whose normal products can 
hardly be retained for any time within the body, much less with¬ 
out undergoing a fetid decomposition, which sufficiently stamps 
them with an excrementatious character; and the bowels, skin, 
kidneys, and tonsils, are the favorite resorts of the several morbid 
poisons, just as they are the surfaces by which naturally the 
organic waste of the several tissues is eliminated. And it is es¬ 
pecially under such circumstances—where ventilation is defec¬ 
tive, where human beings are unduly crowded, where the air is 
loaded with putrid or deoxidising influences—that contagious 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


77 


diseases tend to affect the system, either through a new genera¬ 
tion of their poison, or through some vast increase of suscepti¬ 
bility thus engendered. In examining the habitations of the poor¬ 
est classes in our large cities, we find the atmosphere highly ani- 
malized, often fetid with organic matters; the air is so little chang¬ 
ed that it stinks with the volatile excretions of the many human 
beings crowded together, and to these contaminations are very 
generally added the products of decomposition from their own 
excretions which lie in cesspools, or have soaked into the soil 
beneath and around their dwellings. Such an atmosphere can do 
but little in purifying the blood wherewith itself is already so 
loaded, and the inhabitants of such localities are consequently 
maintained artificially replete with those humoral products, which 
constitute the predisposition to zymotic blood diseases. 

TIIE EFFECTS OF IMPURE AIR. 

Ochlectic Poison; The spread of contagious and infectious Dis¬ 
eases. Some of the effects of impure air have been considered 
in Toxicology, under the head of Poisonous Gases. There are 
subtle animal poisons, some of which are only recognizable by 
their effects, probably compound ammonias and C}’anogen com¬ 
pounds, which tend to generate and spread diseases. The term 
ochlectic has been invented as a general term for these. The 
massing of numbers of people together, also tends to the spread¬ 
ing of other zymotic diseases, such as scarlet fever, measles, small 
pox, etc. All these subjects are treated of, in manuals of hygiene. 
You may however be asked: How is the contagion or infection 
propagated? and how long does the contagion or infection last? 

In answer to the former , you must reply, that for most of the- 
so called zymotic diseases, there are several ways, in which the 
disease is spread from person to person, as for example: By 
direct personal contact with the body, living or dead, of one 
already diseased; also by contact with the excreta of the sick, 
including particles of the epidermis or cuticle, particles of moist 
or dry matter (pus) scabs or crusts; portions of coughed up or 
expectorated matter; the nasal secretion; vomited matter, con¬ 
tact with the urine and faeces; with other fluids and secretions; 
blood, saliva, prespiration; by soiled clothes, bedding and books 
used b 3 ^ the sick; by the presence of the air of the sick rooms, 
and even of infected towns, of famites or other media of conta- 


78 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


gion; by food and beverages, as by water previously contam¬ 
inated in any of the ways above mentioned. 

Your reply to the second question must be cautiously worded. 
Unless clothing has been subjected to a dry heat 212° to 300° 
F., or more, or thoroughly washed with disinfectants and then 
dried, or exposed to chlorine or sulphurous acid gas; and unless 
rooms have been treated with the same gaseous disinfectants, or 
thoroughly cleansed with hot water and soap and exposed for 
some days to free currents of air, infection will linger lovingly in 
some of the folds of the clothing, or in the dust of the apartments. 

As regards patients, you must be still more cautious. The 
stools of patients convalescing from cuteric fever appear to be 
capable of spreading the disease for two or three months (if not 
disinfected.) A scarlet fever or measles patient will spread the 
fever until his or her skin has completely ceased desquamating; 
a varilous patient, at least until every particle of scab has been 
removed from the skin. Peroxide of hydroyen or ozonic of ether 
is said by Dr. Gay to check this tendency of scarlet fever or small 
pox to spread from person to person. He used it in the form of 
an ointment (rubbed up with lard.) Sulphurous oxide, carbonic 
acid, chlorine, chloride of lime , bi-chromate of potash, sulphate 
of copper, sulphate of zinc, chloride of zinc, bi chloride of mer¬ 
cury, sulphate of iron, arsenious acid and arsenate of soda are the 
best known disinfectants. 

HOW TO USE DISINFECTANTS. 

First: In the sick room.—The most available agents are 
fresh air and cleanliness. The clothing, towels, bed linen, etc., 
should on removal from a patient, and before they are taken from 
the room, be placed in a pail containing zinc solution, boiling hot, 
if possible. All discharges should be received in vessels con¬ 
taining the copperas solution. 

Second: Fumigation with sulphur is the only practical 
method for disinfecting the house; the rooms to be disinfected 
must be vacated. Heavy clothing, blankets, bedding, etc., which 
can not be treated with zinc solution should be opened and ex¬ 
posed during fumigation as directed herewith. Close the room 
as tightly as possible, place the sulphur in iron pans supported 
upon bricks placed in wash tubs containing a little water. Set 
it on fire by hot coals, or with the aid of a spoonful of alcohol, 
and allow the room to remain closed for twenty-four hours. For 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


79 


a room about ten feet square, at least two pounds of sulphur 
should be used and in proportion, according to size of room. 

Third: Corpses should be thoroughly washed with the zinc 
solution of double strength; they should then be wrapped tight 
in a sheet wet with the zinc solution placed in an air tight 
casket, and not thereafter exposed under any circumstances. 
Use roll sulphur (brimstone) for fumigation; sulphate of iron 
(copperas) dissolved in water in the proportion of one and a half 
pounds to the gallon , this is called (copperas solution).— Sulphate 
of zinc and common salt , dissolved together in water, in the pro¬ 
portion of four ounces of sulphate of zinc to two ounces of salt, 
in a gallon of water; this is the zinc solution single strength. 


CONTAGION BY CONTACT; OR, GLANDULAR 
THEORY OF INFECTION. 


In order to make our readers fully acquainted with the dan¬ 
gers arising from carelessness in the handling of bodies, we can 
not do better than to reproduce the theory adopted by Dr. B. W. 
Richardson; and with exaggerating these dangers, this may ex¬ 
plain the causes of the many insidious disorders which, although 
not always fatal, prove at times, a burden of suffering to the pa¬ 
tient. Some few years ago Dr. Richardson made the discovery 
that the fluids secreted during the various stages of some forms 
of communicable disease, or the morbid secretions of persons 
who have died from the same, could not be made to propagate 
disease. This he practically proved by producing hospital fever 
in an animal, by introducing into a wound, previously made, the 
secretion of a wound from a person who had died from surgical 
injury. Subsequently the secretions from that animal trans¬ 
mitted the disease to another, and it was thus propagated through 
four generations. Dr. Richardson then essayed to isolate the 
poisonous matter, and succeeded in producing a darkish, some¬ 
what powdery, half glistening mass, closely resembling that ob¬ 
tained by drying the fluid which exuded from the cut poison sac 
of any venomous snake. To this substance he gave the name 
septine , and classified diseases produced by it, as septinous dis¬ 
eases; and in searching for a theory to account for the phenomena 




80 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


observed, he came to the conclusion that the secretions of the 
animal body are the sources of the septinous diseases, and that 
the latter are all of glandular origin; that in every case of disease, 
the poison producing it, is nothing less, than a modified form of 
the salivary gastric, or some other secretions. The diseases so 
produced are small pox, measles, scarlet fever, diptheria, typhus, 
yellow, hospital, and typhoid fevers, erysipelas, cholera, glanders, 
boils, carbuncles, and infectious ophthalmia. 

Dr. Richardson’s other chief conclusions may be briefly summed 
up as follows: So long as a person is affected with these organic 
poisons, and is giving off a vapor when living, at a certain tem¬ 
perature, or, if recently dead is still covered with the prespira- 
tion of death, he is poisonous. The poison is mechanically 
carried and distributed by the vapor, or by direct contact with 
the prespiratory moisture of the dead body, or other morbid se¬ 
cretions. These poisons are harmless in the dry state, but re¬ 
sume their activity in water. They may all be destroyed by 
extreme dilution, by heat, by exposure to moist oxygen, chlorine, 
iodine, bromine, sulphurous acid, and nitrous acid in a less de¬ 
gree. Bright sunlight is a potent means of their destruction. 
They are preserved by cold, sulphur, creasote and arsenic, so 
that they keep their active properties. The} 7 do not multiply 
like germs, but each particle possesses the property of converting 
certain secretions of the living animal into itself. The poison 
may travel as dry, solid matter, in sewage, or be wafted through 
the air, or in linen saturated with secretions, or may exist in 
vapor, or in watery vapor. 

It is stated that the nnmber of closely communicable diseases 
is intimately related to the number of secretions. The poison of 
hydrophobia is from salivary secretions; of dyptheria, from the 
mucous glands of the throat; of scarlet fever, from the lymphatic 
glandular secretions; of glands, from the mucous secretions of 
the nasal surface; of typhoid fever, from the mucous glands of 
the intestinal surface and so on. In many instances the blood 
itself is infected, and the corpuscular matter, becomes the seat 
of a catalvtic change. 

t/ P 

Dr. Richardson also advances the views that an extreme ner¬ 
vous impression (such as is the case where a prevailing disease 
can only be traced to fear or anxiety,) acts on the glandular 
nervous supply, paralyzes the glandular functions, and thereupon 



TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 





81 

produces the same phenomena as is produced in other instances 
by the action of a specific poison. These poisons act first on the 
nervous fiber, and the irritation caused, gradually extends to the 
nervous center. That is what slowly takes place in hydrophobia. 

Another conclusion is, that the communicable diseases are 
hereditary; and still another sequence of Dr. Richardson’s re¬ 
searches. leads to the explanation of non-recurrence of the disease, 
after they have once attacked a person susceptible to them. 
They who are susceptible, are born with a nervous impression 
tending to the production of a glandular secretion, easily changed 
into poisonous secretion under the direct action of contact with 
poisonous matter, or even under the influence of a central ner¬ 
vous derangement, whereby the glandular function is deranged. 
Dr. Richardson considered that if this theory be true, we have 
complete mastery over the diffusion of the poisons of all commu¬ 
nicable diseases. 

The body of a man, or animal affected with a contagious dis¬ 
ease, is as deadly as the cobra, and he should be isolated, and 
care be taken that its secretions; volatile, solid or fluid, while 
living or after death, do not come in contact with the secretions 
of susceptible healthy persons (as, for instance, the secretion of 
the mucous glands of the throat of a person, who has died of 
diphtheria coming into contact with the excoriated surface, cuts 
etc., on the hands of a healthy person, or even where the skin is 
entire, it may be absorbed, if allowed to remain for some time, 
especially if the hands are in a state of perspiration;) thus the 
danger can be avoided. 

Finally, this theory suggests to those who are engaged in 
handling the remains of persons who may have died of some 
communicable disease, the best means of arresting its progress, 
even when the phenomena of it have developed to some extent, 
by seeking for remedies among chemical agents which affect 
special seeretions; and it shows how to place the sick under such 
conditions, that the absorption, of their own poisonous secretions 
—that deep absorption, which is the actual cause of death in the 
great majority of cases of contagious diseases—may be avoided. 


6 


82 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


DANGERS ARISING FROM HANDLING THE 

DEAD. 


To those who, like physicians, students and nurses, are almost 
constantly thrown into direct contact with every form of epidemic, 
contagious and infectious diseases, the dangers arising there¬ 
from are considerable. But undertakers are exposed to a still 
greater risk, namely; that of handling the remains of those who 
have died from the effects of those same diseases. Not only do 
they have to guard against the infectious character of the con¬ 
tagion, but the} 7 have also to protect themselves against the ma¬ 
lignant effluvia which emanates from the victims of the contagion 
after disintegration of the body has taken place, the nauseous 
and sickening gases which are generated bv decay, and the 
deadly virus which may be innoculated into the s} 7 stem, either 
through some puncture or abrasion of the skin; the virulent 
effects of the poison may be carried carelessly to the mouth, the 
nose, or the eyes by a thoughtless action. Too much care can¬ 
not be exercised by undertakers in handling a corpse, especially 
if the subject is known to have been afflicted with some infec- 
tiuous or malignant complaint. 

Still the precautions generally in use among undertakers, and 
the different preparations that are commonly recommended as 
preventatives, are useless in most cases, as there are conditions 
of the system which will increase the danger, and in some in¬ 
stances leave it open to the insidious attacks of disease and con¬ 
tagion. Too much importance has been attached, by far, to 
the artificial means devised by some, under the names of 
preservatives, antidotes, etc. The reliance placed on them in 
a great many cases, has proved futile, and although some 
possess real and undisputed merit, they proved ineffectual, when 
the system has been influenced by the following: Conditions of 
the system , which will increase the danger of contagion: Fear .— 
Almost in every case, if a person is brought in sudden contact 
with the remains of one, who has died of either cholera, small 
pox, yellow fever, or any of those terrible epidemic and conta¬ 
gious diseases, which will in a few weeks decimate a populous 
city; the feeling will be one of repulsive horror. In some this 
feeling will amount to absolute fear, which will show itself in the 
dilated pupil, the bleached countenance, and the momentous 



TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


S3 


forebodings which assail the mind, and predispose the system to 
the attacks of the disease. In this case, the mind influences the 
body to such an extent, that the disease has already fastened it¬ 
self upon the system before the first symptoms are felt. 

Another and potent cause of danger is that which proceeds 
from a debilitated condition of the system, the causes of which 
are numerous; over-exertion of either the body or the mind; 
labor carried on incessantly without due regard to relaxation; 
imperfect nutrition, or long fast; all are causes which will tend to 
render the system more vulnerable to the aggression of sickness. 

But the most pernicious and fatal of all mistakes, is that of 
using stimulants to waid off the effects of contagion. How many 
of our professionals and their assistants have given way to the 
use of ardent spirits, under the delusion, that it was absolutely 
necessary, to avoid the noxious effects of infectious diseases. It 
is a well authenticated fact, and one worthy of notice, that per¬ 
sons who generally indulge in the use of spirituous liquors, even 
in a moderate quantity, are those who are first attacked by epi¬ 
demic or contagious diseases, and who almost always fall victims 
to it. Take for instance, the case of a surgeon about to perform 
a dangerous operation. His first inquiry will be about the habits 
of the patient; he knows well enough that a man addicted to 
drink will not bear up under the trial. 

The only means we have to protect ourselves from the dangers 
of infection from dead bodies are: first, a perfect ventilation of 
the room where the remains lie, so as to obviate the bad tendency 
which the air of the death-chamber might have upon the system. 
Attention must be paid to the diet; the food eaten should be 
generous and nutritious, and it is proper to take a small quantity 
of wine, at a time when the body and mind are debilitated by 
long and exhaustive manipulation of the dead, but avoid all ex¬ 
cess of fluids or solids. Temperance is strictly necessary . 

Wounds received while handling a corpse should not be neg¬ 
lected; if a simple abrasion, it should be covered; if pricked, the 
liquid muriate of ammonia, or caustic potassa are recommended 
to be applied as cauteries. These are the early measures to be 
pursued; but after absorption has taken place,a different course 
must be practiced, and a good physician consulted without de¬ 
lay. The garments ordinarily worn should never be brought in- 


t 


84 TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

to direct contact with the remains of a person tainted with some 
infectious disease. 

But it is to the hands we must pay particular attention. Gan¬ 
grenous or syphilitic sores may be found on a subject, in which 
case, extreme caution must be exerted; the hands should be first 
well rubbed with lard or sweet oil mixed with carbolate of cam¬ 
phor, and thoroughly washed after the handling of the body is 
over; then the hands should be well soaked in chlorinated soda 
(so called Labarraque solution) as the disinfecting properties of 
chlorine will be found here particularly useful. 

If the above suggestions are faithfully followed, they will be 
found to greatly diminish the dangers attending the handling of 
the dead—dangers which can never be entirely avoided. 


PRACTICES WHICH MUST BE ABOLISHED. 


Some usages which seem to be sanctioned by long practice, 
but not by any remarkable amount of good judgement, ought to 
be discountenanced and done away with, simply upon the ground, 
that these acts conflict directly with all sanitary law, and, to a 
great extent, endanger the lives of the persons who may be present. 
Still, these repeated transgressions upon the common precau¬ 
tionary measures against contagion are not the result of a desire 
to do wrong, neither do they always arise from sheer ignorance, 
but they are almost always caused by an utter disregard of even 
the simplest prudence. 

For instance, how often, where a child has succumbed to the 
attack of some infectious disease, like■ diphtheria, scarlet fever, 
etc., will parents, regardless of the contagious character of the 
disease, insist upon kissing the pallid lips of the corpse, and more¬ 
over, invite other children to follow the same dangerous practice. 

And again, another prolific source of disease lies in the fact, 
that funeral services will be conducted in a close, warm, ill-venti¬ 
lated room crowded with a sympathizing audience, in close prox¬ 
imity to a corpse emitting foul and infectious effluvia, and inhal¬ 
ing these into the system. It is true, that these same noxious 
gases may not always be detected by the smell, as the floral or¬ 
namentations, the crowded state of the room, etc., all tend to dis- 


4 




TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


85 


guise any unpleasant odors; but the germ of contagion is still 
there and actively at work. 

It is a fact, patent and undeniable, that carelessness in the 
keeping and disposing of bodies, is an act of guilty neglect, and 
the sooner the community be made acquainted with the dangers 
attending such practices as those above spoken of, the better it 
will be for the enforcement of those sanitary measures, which 
are necessary in eveiy well-regulated city or town. 

We have alread}'' spoken of the dangers to be encountered in 
the handling of bodies, but the subject is of so much importance 
to undertakers, and concerns the profession so closely, that it may 
not be amiss here, to renew our former cautions; also, to add a 
few more suggestions, so as to modify the danger thereof, even if 
it cannot be completely eradicated. 


FORENSIC MEDICINE. 


Although this subject may be considered by a large majority to 
be irrelevant of the knowledge usually ascribed to the undertaker 
for the perfect discharge of his professional duties, it is never¬ 
theless proper for the reader to be made acquainted with the 
technicalities and facts which he may at any moment be called 
upon to answer in a manner consistent with the care, and so 
frame his words, that his hearers be impressed with a sense of 
trust in the reliability of his testimony. It is therefore, well for 
the intelligent professional to be prepared (should occasion de¬ 
mand it,) to furnish in a clear and lucid manner his quota of in¬ 
formation when it is required of him, and how much better can 
it be done by familiar study of at least the first rudiments in 
that branch of medical science, which has for its name forensic 
medicine. If we have extended ourselves at some length upon 
the subject of Toxicology, we had in view two distinct purposes: 
first , to protect the undertaker from danger, by a thorough knowl¬ 
edge of some of the drugs and substances he may be called upon 
to manipulate; second, to so instruct him in the symptoms, effects 
and antidotes of the same substances that he may be able to es¬ 
cape the stigma of complete ignorance, where often times his 
evidence in a court of justice may be of real importance. 




86 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


Forensic medicine, or medical jurisprudence, may be said to 
include every branch of medical art, and every fact in the wide 
domain of medical science. A witness in a court of law may be 
asked questions, the correct answer to which may presuppose 
an almost omniscient acquaintance with the facts and theories of 
anatomy, medicine, surgery, etc. In order to the detection of 
crimes of all kinds, it is almost evident that such “a circle of 
sciences” could never be comprised within the limits of this 
book. Toxicology alone, of which we have only seen the most 
prominent features in a superficial manner has now a voluminous 
literature of its own, and is justly considered a division of this 
subject. They fear to begin the stud} 7 of forensic medicine, be¬ 
cause it appears to them a labyrinth of indigested facts and 
theories far too bewildering for men of average abilities and ordi¬ 
nary leisure. The evil of this state of things are, that many of 
our professionals feel conscious of painful and ridiculous exhibi¬ 
tions of ignorance in courts of law; ignorance which it is to be 
feared has too often led to a failure of justice. The object of the 
within are given, as outlines of the current knowledge of the day 
on those topics which are most frequently the subject of inquiry 
and also the controversy during civil or criminal trials. Some of 
the chief practical issues you may be called to testify upon, are: 

1. —On the identity of the dead subject. 

2. —The fact of death itself. 

3. —The cause of death according to post mortem appearances, 
—whether by the ordinary course of nature, disease or violence, 
by poison, strangulation, drowning, etc., and if by any of these, 
what are the proofs ? 

First .—Make yourself as fully acquainted as possible with all 
the facts of the case upon which you have to give evidence; care¬ 
fully examine the clothing, if any, and all the surroundings of a 
dead body. 

Second .—Avoid all flippancy of manner. Even if no serious 
issues are at stake, your own sense of propriety must lead you to 
spare the feelings of the friends or the relatives of the deceased 
as much as possible; at the same time a man’s natural manner 
is best, and we deprecate all assumption of preternatural gravity. 

Third .—Arrange what you have to say, especially the post 
mortem symptoms you may have observed. 

Fourth .—Use the plainest English you can, and never strive to 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


87 


appear learned b}r the use of scientific or cant terms; let the re¬ 
sult of a blow be a bruise rather than a contusion; speak of a 
blood clot rather than of apoplectic extravasation. 

Fifth .—Do not answer any question unless you both hear it 
and clearly understand it. 

Sixth .—Never lose your temper in the witness box: be as cool 
and imperturbable as possible. 

Seventh .—Avoid prolixity and useless repetition, volunteer as 
little evidence as possible, but keep back no part of the truth. 

Eighth —Keep your opinions, together with all disputed cir¬ 
cumstances quite separate from those facts which you have your¬ 
self observed, or which are satisfactorily proved by the evidence. 

Ninth .—Whilst avoiding undue hesitation as you would undue 
haste, take time so to frame your answer that it may convey 
your real meaning, and be easily understood. 

Tenth .—Take care that your depositions are read over to you, 
before signing them. 

For the examination ol bodies found dead, we refer you to the 
chapter of post mortem examinations, also before you disturb the 
bod} T , carefully note its position and surroundings, and the posi¬ 
tion of blood stains, if any. We now come to matters of detail 
and observe: 

1. That you should carefully examine and note the attitude 
of the body, to see if there be anything suggestive of a struggle, 
or violent death by poison or otherwise; look for weapons, or 
traces of blood, or for cups or bottles which may have contained 
poison; for example prussic acid is often given and taken in 
beer, and arsenic in tea or coffee, or in solid articles of food. 

2. —Is the body clothed? wholly or partially or naked? are the 
clothes injured or stained? 

3. —Note carefully the position of the limbs; are they rigid? 
(See rigor mortis.) If the fingers or toes are clenched; see if 
there is anything held between them; examine the nails also; in 
struggles, hair or portions of skin or clothing may be found, 
whilst in drowning, sand or weeds may be met with. 

4. —Carefully note the color and expression of face. Are the 
eyes dreadfully staring, or decently closed; are the pupils large, 
small or unequal; is the mouth open or the teeth clenched; is 
there froth about the mouth or any particular smell (chloroform 
or prussic acid?) The face will generally be livid after 


88 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


apoplex}^ suffocation, hanging, etc., or when much struggling 
has preceded death, or in natural deaths in which the lungs; 
right heart and venous system are much gorged. It is however, 
usually pale after death from acids, as prussic acid, alkalies, most 
vegetable poisons, blows upon the epigastrium, and injuries to 
the vital organs. On the other hand, poisoning by alcohol, opium, 
oxide of carbon and chloroform, it may be either red or pale. In 
most violent deaths, and after severe hemorrhages, the features 
are convulsed. Apoplex} r , opium, carbonic acid and other nar¬ 
cotics, often give a calm look, whilst corrosive poisons, especially 
those producing severe abdominal sj^mptoms, frequently give a 
pinched and curious expression. Note the condition of the gums 
and teeth; has the tongue been bitten. 

5. —Now remove all clothes from the body; see if any urine, 
faces, semen, or any other discharge has taken place. 

6. —Examine carefully for external wounds, marks or burns, 
blisters, etc.; if there be any marks of a cord around the neck; 
should you find a cord, note where the knot is, front or back, as in 
suicide it is generally in front. Dr. Letheby has pointed out that 
wounds inflicted after death generally dry and discolor around 
the edges, acquiring a brownish parchment-like appearance. 

7. —Note all circumstances tending to throw any light upon the 
time and mode of death: first, the temperature; second, the 
amount or absence of rigidity; third, the extent of putrefaction, 
or other change. (See Signs of Death.) 


THE RIGOR MORTIS. 


It is proper to note whether or not the body is in the condi¬ 
tion of post mortem rigidity. More attention has, perhaps, been 
given to this post mortem condition than it well deserved. 
According to Kuhne, the rigor mortis is produced by a change 
in the muscular fibres; the fibres first lose their contractibility, 
then there is the coagulation of the myosine, and loss of elastic¬ 
ity. When this acidit} 7 has reached its height, the muscles be¬ 
come softer and the rigor mortis gradually disappears; finally, 
the acid condition is succeeded by an alkaline fermentation, and 
decomposition ensues. 




TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


89 


The rigor mortis generally begins in the muscles of the lower 
jaw and back of the neck; it then extends to those of the face, 
neck, thorax, arms, and finally the legs; it usually disappears in 
the same order; it generally begins in from eight to twenty 
hours after death, but often much sooner. The bodies of per¬ 
sons killed on the field of battle, and of those who have been 
drowned, sometimes seem to be overtaken by the rigor mortis at 
the very instant of death; the bodies retain the same position, 
and the face the same expression, which they had in the last 
moments of life. The rigor mortis may continue for from one to 
ten days, generally, but not always. Death from narcotic pois¬ 
ons is followed by a short and feeble rigidity, while death by 
lightning is followed by rapid and intense rigidity; in young 
children it is feeble and of short duration. The degree and 
duration of rigor mortis after death from violence, from different 
diseases, etc., is stated so variedly by different observers, that no 
rules can be given concerning it. 

The temperature of the normal living body is 98° to 99° F. 
In illness, the temperature may be increased several degrees. 
After death the body usually cools to the same point as the sur¬ 
rounding air; this is said to take place in from fifteen to twenty 
hours. 

Taylor, from the examination of one hundred bodies, states 
that the average heat of the skin of the abdomen, at a period of 
two or three hours after death, is 77° ; at four to six hours, 74° ; 
at six to eight hours, 70°; at twelve hours, 69°. The internal 
viscera retain their heat longer than the surface of the body. 

It is said that after sudden death from accidents, apoplexy, 
acute diseases, and asphyxia, the body retains its heat for an 
unusually long period. It is both asserted and denied, that after 
death from hemorrhage the body cools rapidly; the body of an 
adult cools more slowly than that of a child or an old person; 
that of a fat person more slowly than that of a lean one. 

In some cases there is an exceptional retention and even an 
increase of heat in the dead body. Dr. John Davy reports, that 
in a case of death from rheumatism, after the viscera has been 
exposed for several minutes, the temperature of the left ventricle 
of the heart was 113°, and that of the liver 112°. In a second 
case, six hours after death, the temperature of the heart was 
108°. It is stated that after death from yellow fever and chol- 


90 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

era, the temperature increases for several hours after death. 
There are also recorded a number of instances in which the body 
retained its heat for several days, without known cause. 

It will be seen from what has been said, that if we are called 
upon to pronounce the length of time that has elapsed since 
death, in a given case, this is only to be done approximately, and 
it is probably necessary to take into consideration the cause and 
manner of death, the condition of the individual, the state of the 
atmosphere, the manner in which the bod}^ has been kept atter 
death; and even after making these allowances, we can only say 
that a person has probably been dead for such and such a time. 


BURYING ALIVE. 


SIGNS OF DEATH—POST MORTEM RIGIDITY-PUTREFACTION — 

ORDER OF SIGNS OF DEATH. 

Such cases have happened, particularly in cases of yellow 
fever, cholera plague, or in hot countries, from the practice of 
burying on the day of, or the day after death. What, then, are 
the signs of death ? Briefly the} 7 are as follows: 

First .—Entire cessation of the heart’s action, not for a few 
seconds only, but continuously. Mere absence of the pulse at 
the wrist, or even in other arteries, is not enough, as this may be 
found in cholera, abdominial collapse, and other kinds of shock, 
etc. Careful auscultation and palpitation of the heart’s region 
in a quiet room, alone can decide the absence of cardiae action. 
In doubtful cases it would be better to employ the stimulus of a 
galvanic shock to the heart’s region. It should be remembered 
that there is a “pulse” whenever an artery is superficial enough 
to communicate its stioke to the exploring finger, as in the facial, 
the carotids of the neck, the brachial, radial, ulmar, femoral, and 
anterior and posterior tibial arteries. There are many instances 
of the recovery of children and infants after the heart had appar¬ 
ently ceased to beat for at least a quarter of an hour. The heart, 
and especially its right auricle, seems to have a life of its own, 
distinct from the great nervous centers, and continues to beat or 
contract, even when cut in fragments, for some minutes after its 
removal from the body. The presumption of death, when this 




TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


91 


last part of the body no longer gives signs of life, must therefore 
be very strong. 

*Second .—Entire cessation of respiration. The act of breath¬ 
ing is so eminently a vital one, that any long suspension of this 
function can not but be fatal. Here the Stethoscope should be 
used, as careful auscultation is more likely to detect the noises 
made by air, or air and mucous, or other fluids traversing the air 
tubes, than any other means. The use of the looking-glass to 
condense the moisture of the breath, or of a feather, or other 
light body,'to indicate the movements of air, are popular but not 
very reliable methods of ascertaining the continuance or other¬ 
wise of respiration. 

Third .—Changes in and about the eye. 

1. —An entire insensibility to light: the pupil no longer con¬ 
tracts or dilates, according to the amount of light thrown upon 
it. The best mode of testing this is known to apthalmic sur¬ 
geons as oblique illumination. A bright light is placed on one 
side of the eye to be examined, and its rays brought to a focus 
by means of a double convex lens of about two inches focus, and 
the lens and light so disposed that this focus falls upon or nearly 
coincides with the pupillary aperture. When no change is pro¬ 
duced, the iris remaining immovable, we may then usually con¬ 
clude that life is extinct. 

2. —There is an entire loss of sensibility to touch in the ocular 
conjunctive. This is, however, equally true of a period in epi¬ 
leptic fits, and in some cerebral injuries. 

3. —The conjunctiva? covering the sclerotic begins to show 
a gray, cloudy discoloration on its external portion, which soon 
becomes blackish. Mr. Larcher considers this phenomena as 
due to putrefaction changes. 

4. —The cornea speedily loses its transparency; in other words, 
the eye has lost its lustre. This change, however, may take 
place in life, as in cholera and other diseases. 

5. —The eye soon becomes sunken in the socket, and the globe 
itself becomes flaccid, so as to retain the dent or mark of any 
pressure made upon it. 

6. —Mr. Bouchert states that beads of air or gas, in other words 
an interrupted column of blood, will be seen in the retinal veins, 
resembling bubbles of air in the colored fluid of a spirit ther¬ 
mometer. 


92 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


7. —At the same time the eyelids will have lost their elasticity, 
neither they, nor the globe of the eye moving any longer. 

8. —It is said that atropine or calabar bean no longer produces 
the contraction and dilatation, which are their respective proper¬ 
ties. This is true of a body dead some days, but not so of a 
body dead only a few hours. 

9. —Electric and mechanical stimuli equally fail to effect the 
eye of one dead for some time. 

Fourth .— Changes in the temperature of the body. Gradual 
cooling or loss of heat is the most common change after death; 
in some diseases, however, the temperature of the body rises 
after death; as in cholera, yellow fever, tetanus, rheumatic fever, 
small pox, etc. 

It is a familiar observation that the bodj^ cools more or less 
rapidly, according to the external temperature, the amount of 
clothing and other accidental circumstances. It has been stated 
by Messrs. Durand and Limas as a result of numerous experi¬ 
ments, that from eighteen to twenty-four hours are required for 
the body, under ordinary circumstances, to cool down to the tem¬ 
perature of the surrounding atmosphere. As these observations 
have not been published in English, we subjoin a summary 
thereof, which are taken seriatim from one hundred and thirty- 
five persons dying of various diseases. It is the axillary (or 
under the arm pits) temperature of the body: 

TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY AFTER DEATH. 


2 to 4 hours. 4 to 6 hours. 6 to 8 hours. 8 to io hours 

or more. 

Maxima.109.4° F. 98.2° F. 95.3° F. 100.4° F. 

Minima. 89 6° F. 80.6° F. 70.5° F. 62.6° F. 

Average . 96.9° F. 90.2° F. 81.7° F. 77.9° F. 

i 


The following seem the chief practical conclusions from these 
and other facts collected on this subject: 

First .—That in the winter the human body takes several hours 
—certainly not less than four, sometimes twelve and even more, 
to cool down to the temperature of the surrounding air, espec¬ 
ially if internal temperature be observed. 

Second .—The external temperature, the amount and kind of 
clothing, and the position of the body, all modify the rate of 
cooling. The cooling seems to depend upon: (a) The cessation 
of heat produced by vital or chemical processes; ( b) Radiation; 





TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


93 


(c) Conduction and convection by cool air, cold ground, stone, 
wood, articles of bedding, and other substances upon which the 
body rests, or by which it is surrounded. 

Third .—Age or sex seem to modify this process but little. 

Fourth .—The mode of death has far more to do with it. Large 
losses of blood seem to cause rapid cooling; but Dr. Taylor has 
shown that it is not invariably true. 

Fifth .—Several minor phenomena, or so called tests for death, 
have been observed and may conveniently be grouped as follows: 
(a) If scarificators and cupping glasses be applied to the pit of 
the stomach blood usually flows, but it will not do so after death, 
at all events not many hours. (6) It is stated that a burning 
match, hot sealing wax, cantharides solutions, or blistering fluids, 
no longer produce vesication; here again, there is a fallacy, as 
such results may happen in young and healthy subjects, although 
not after the second or third day. (c) The fingers and hands, 
especially in young subjects, are translucent during life, but be¬ 
come opaque after death. (d) A string tied tightly around the 
finger of the supposed corpse, will, if life be not extinct, soon 
cause the finger to turn bluish-red. 

CHANGES BY PUTREFACTION AND THE EVOLUTION OF GASES. 

These become evident to sight, smell or chemical tests. The 
earliest signs are a greenish or greenish purple, or yellowish-green 
discoloration of the abdomen. This extends next to the genitals 
and other parts of the body. The changes of the eyes have 
already been given. Next, gases of various kinds are generated 
in more or less abundance, and give the corpse a bloated appear¬ 
ance, especially distending the abdomen; in some cases, these 
gases are highly inflammable. These gases tinge both the ex¬ 
terior and interior of the viscera in a remarkable manner, often 
resembling the effects of poison. The color of the blood in the 
veins and heart may also be changed by these spontaneous de¬ 
compositions. 

The force of the gas generated has been sufficient in some in¬ 
stances to empty the heart and great vessels—even it is said 
to expel the foetus from the uterus, and to burst the coffins even 
when made of lead, in which such bodies had been enclosed. 
There is a popular idea prevalent that it is common for bodies to 
burst, but this is the reverse of the truth. With a view to econ¬ 
omize space, we have constructed the following table: 


94 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


TABULAR VIEW OF THE CAUSES WHICH EFFECT PUTREFACTION. 


THINGS WHICH RETARD PUTREFACTION. 

Temperature at 32° F. and 
below; cold weather and cold 
rooms. 

Temperature above 212° F.; 
hemorrhages; if very profuse; 
complete, or nearly complete 
immersion in water. 

The body being protected by 
clothing, or other covering; a 
deep grave. 

Burial, especially in dry sand 
or earth, and burial very soon 
after death; dry elevated 
ground. 

Poisons, as arsenic, alcohol, 
chloroform, strychnine, etc. 

Certain gases; nitrogen; per¬ 
fect air-tight caskets; leanness. 

Old age, unless corpulence; 
lime, as opposed to popular 
views. 

You may ask how soon after death can putrefaction take place? 
Your answer must be, that, under favorable conditions, it may 
supervene within a very few hours after death, certainly within 
five or six hours after death, even to the production of vesica- 
tions. Besides, the color changes, and development of gases in 
putrefaction; the following alterations in the body are caused 
by it: 

The diaphragm is forced up by the distended bowels; the 
blood is forced toward the head and neck; the face swells; the 
eyes, which had been sunken, now become horrible prominent, 
and collapse at a later period. Mucous; bloody froth; the con¬ 
tents of the stomacli and lungs come out at the mouth—rarely 
the contents of the bowels escape; blood, or rather blood-like 
fluid, exudes from ruptured vessels or old wounds; loose tissues 
(eyelids, scrotum, penis, the great labia) are distended; the hair, 
nails and scarf-skin easily become detached. Portions of the 


THINGS WHICH FAYOR PUTREFACTION. 

Temperature between 70°and 
100° F.; therefore, summer 
weather and warm rooms. 

Moisture—brain and eyes 
soon putrefy; so do dropsical 
subjects. Low, swampy ground. 

Free access of air; a shallow 
grave; absence of clothing. 

Previous injuries and dis¬ 
eases; bruises, wounds and in¬ 
flammation. 

Sudden death; acute diseases. 

Childhood; the female sex; 
especially after child-birth; 
corpulence. 

Animal poison; prussic acid; 
poisonous gases; oxygen. 





TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


95 


body have been luminous after dark in some cases, generally in 
advanced stages of consumption, or wasting disease. 


DISINFECTING PROPERTIES OF ACIDS. 


1. CHLORIDE OF LIME. 

Application .—To destroy putrid gases and check putrefaction. 

How used .—A solution of chloride of lime made by straining 
or decanting a gallon of water into which a pound of the lime has 
been dissolved, is a good disinfectant fluid to use in washing the 
bodies of those who have died of small pox, cholera, scarlet fever, 
measles or any other disease. It is a good solution to use in the 
sick room for cleansing the hands of the nurse, and into which 
small articles can be immersed which are awaiting an oppor¬ 
tunity to be boiled. 

To generate chlorine gas, pour strong vinegar or dilute sul¬ 
phuric acid upon chloride of lime placed in pans in the room. 
Or, place in an earthen vessel four ounces of peroxide of manga¬ 
nese and pour upon it one pound of muriatic acid. 

Chlorine gas is regarded as an efficient disinfectant, but it, 
must be efficiently applied. It is very efficient in disinfecting 
confined or infected atmospheres and porous substances. Its 
rapid diffusion and power of penetration are great. It destroys 
sulphureted hydrogen, ammonia, and all fetid organic compounds. 
Its odor penetrates far beyond its power as a disinfectant, hence 
its real degree of influence may be deceptive. It can appropri¬ 
ately })e used in disinfecting ships, ship baggage, foul cellars, and 
rooms unoccupied. 

2. PERMANGANATE OF POTASSIUM. 

Application .— To disinfect temporarily soiled articles from 

the sick room until they can be boiled or washed. 

%/ 

It should not be used in connection with carbolic acid. This 
article forms the principal ingredient in “Condy’s Disinfecting 
Liquid,” of the shops. 

Articles should be immediately boiled upon removal from this 
liquid. 

The solution should be made by dissolving one ounce of the 
permanganate in three gallons of water. 




96 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


3. CHLORALUM AND BROMO-CHLORALUM. 

According to analysis of these compounds, the most valuable 
element they contain, and the one to which they owe largely their 
disinfecting property, is the chloride of aluminum, which of itself 
is a very efficient disinfectant. 

How used .—Dilute with eight or ten parts of water and place 
in vessels in the sick room, or saturate towels with the diluted 
solution and hang them in the sick room, as it possesses the ad¬ 
vantage of being odorless. 

4. CHLORIDE OF ZINC. SULPHIDE OF ZINC. SULPHATE OF ZINC. 

Application .—These salts of zinc are used in solution pre¬ 
cisely the same as the permanganate of potassium is used. They 
are all poisonous, but are regarded as good disinfectants. The 
solution needs to be made strong—two ounces of zinc to each 
gallon of water used. If the solution is very strong, damage may 
result to the clothing immersed in it. Articles immersed in these 
solutions should be boiled without much delay. 

These solutions are especially adapted to the disinfecting of 
sewage. 

5. IODINE. 

Application .—For the deodorization and disinfection of fluid 
and semi-fluid substances undergoing decomposition, iodine is 
well recommended. 

It is claimed to have a destructive influence over the virus of 
small-pox, for which purpose it can bo exposed, in small quan¬ 
tities, upon a plate in the room. 

A solution of iodine, two grains; iodide of potassium, twenty 
grains, and water, four ounces, kept in an open vessel, at a high 
temperature, has been employed in the sick room of scarlet fever 
patients as a useful disinfectant. 

6. CARBOLIC ACID. 

Application .—Mixed in the proportion of one part of acid to 
from forty to one hundred parts of water, carbolic acid has a 
wide range of application as an antiseptic and disinfectant. 

For purposes of thorough destruction of disease germs, a solu¬ 
tion of not less than two per cent, of the acid should be employed. 
When used to disinfect clothing, a solution of one part of the 
acid to one hundred of water would be an appropriate strength. 

To guard against damage to the clothing by the contact of 
particles of undissolved acid, a quantity of strong vinegar, equal 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


97 


to the amount of acid used, should be added to secure its com¬ 
plete solution in the water. 

Disinfection in a room, as is almost always practiced with a 
spray of carbolic acid, is a mere deceptive procedure. The quan¬ 
tity used is too small to produce any effect upon the specific 
contagion. 

These have long been supposed to possess the power of decom¬ 
posing contagious matters, or in some mode, of depriving it of its 
virulence. It was the custom to dip letters and papers which 
arrived from places where pestilence was prevailing in vinegar. 
Clothes and goods of all kinds coming from lazarettos, are ex¬ 
posed to the vapors produced b} r the slow combustiou of sulphur 
(sulphurous acid.) But the former being thought too feeble, 
and the latter having been found exceedingly irritating to the 
lungs, they are rarely employed for general purposes; and when 
acids are used, either the muriatic, the oxymuriatic (chlorine,) 
or the nitrous is resorted to, though the employment of any of 
them in an inhabited appartment is not attended with serious 
inconvenience to patients and attendants. 

Muriatic acid was first employed by Guyton Morreau in 1773, 
to disinfect the principal church of Dijon, the air of which had 
become so contaminated by the emanations from the vaults be¬ 
low, from which, on account of their crowded state, the bodies 
had been removed, that it was unfit fer Divine worship. Vine¬ 
gar, aromatics , and the de/lagaration of nitre) had been tried, 
but without effect; but the vapor arising from the decomposition 
of six pounds of common salt by two of sulphuric acid deprived 
the air in one day of all unpleasant odors , and in four days after¬ 
ward worship was performed. This distinguished philosopher 
toward the close of the same year, used fumigations of muriatic 
acid with complete success for disinfecting the prison of that 
city also, whither fever had been imported from other cities. 
The preparations recommended are 12 parts of sulphuric acid , 
to 15 parts af nitrate of soda , which should be slightly moist¬ 
ened before the acid is poured upon it. 

Oxygenated muriatic acid (chlorine) was first proposed as a 
disinfecting agent by Pomeroy in 1871. It was soon after em¬ 
ployed b}^ Cruickshank, and it has since united most suffrages in 
its favor. 


7 


98 TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

There is an exellent and concise account in the 18th volume of 
the Journal of Science and the Arts, of the disinfection of the 
Millbank penitentiary, by Mr. Faraday. The following are the 
material points of the process: He found that one part by weight 
of common salt, and one part of oxyde of manganese, when acted 
upon by two parts of oil of vitriol, previously mixed with one 
part of water by weight, produced the best results. The salt 
was bruised down with a mallet previously being mixed with 
the manganese; and the acid and water were mixed in a wooden 
tub, and allowed to stand for some hours, that the heat produced 
by their combination might be dissipated before they were 
poured on the other ingredients. Common red pans (crockery) 
of a flat form, were used for the fumigations. The evolution ot 
chlorine commenced a few minutes after the ingredients were 
mixed in the pan, and continued for four days, no extraneous 
heat being employed in the operation. The quantity of material 
used were 700 pounds of salt, 700 pounds of oxyde of manganese 
and 1400 pounds of sulphuric acid, whilst the amount of space 
fumigated amounted to nearly two million cubic feet and the sur¬ 
face of the walls, floors and ceilings was about 1,200,000. 

The subject would be left imperfect, did we not inquire into 
the extent of the power and the mode of action of acid fumiga¬ 
tions to which class, we include chlorine , either directly applied, 
or furnished by the chlorides. Though not ignorant that the 
title of chlorine being considered an acid is disputed by many 
chemists, and though there may be still some doubt as to the 
mode in which the chlorides affect atmospheric impurities, it 
will be understood at once, that these agents can produce a 
beneficial effect only in a limited quantity of air, and that no 
epidemic constitution existing in the atmosphere of a district or 
country can be corrected by them. If they are to have any 
effect in checking the propagation of miasmatic diseases, such 
diseases must be existing in a limited space. All the stronger 
acids, as we know, possess the power of corroding the animal 
texture; and their property acting on contagious matter, which 
is of animal origin, may depend on this property, or on their 
quality of absorbing or decomposing the noxious gases, which 
are probably powerful vehicles of contagion, as it is ever found 
to be at least active in the purest atmosphere. That in a limited 
atmosphere, they promptly destroy bad odors, is well ascertained, 




TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


99 


and all fumigations, that of chlorine, in this wa} r , is the most 
efficacious; but on what this property depends does not seem to 
be well understood in the case of all of them. Chlorine combines 
readily with hydrogen, and combines with or decomposes its 
compound gases. It decomposes, too, ammoniacal gas and hence, 
there is not much difficulty in understanding how an agent which 
acts promptly on those gases, the result of putrefaction, and af¬ 
fecting strongly the sense of smell, should be powerful in cor¬ 
recting the more obvious nuisances of infected appartments. 
But it is not so clear how certain of the other disinfecting agents, 
muriatic acid, for instance, the affinity of which for septic gases 
is less general than that of chlorine, remedy such nuisances; 
though the experience of Guyton and many others, places the 
fact, that they do so, beyond all question, 

. It is obvious that all solid matters which are in the affected 
apartments will receive the influence of the fumigations employed 
to purify the air. In addition to this, they should be washed 
with soap and water, the walls should be whitewashed, the air be 
freely admitted for some time previously to the room being again 
inhabited. All body and bed clothes surrounding those who 
have died of infectious fevers should be thrown at once into hot 
water, and after remaining there for some time should be 
thorough^ washed with soap or an alkaline lye. They should 
then be hung in the air for a considerable length of time, and 
they ma}^ be occasionally sprinkled with the liquor or chlorinated 
soda. Too much care cannot be taken by persons who are in the 
daily practice of handling the dead. Gases of a more compound 
nature, and still more deleterious properties, are often emitted in 
great abundance trom putrefying animal substances, especially 
from burying grounds. 

A striking account from the remarkable effects produced by 
the exhalations from opening graves, has been given by Four- 
croix. It appears, from the report of the grave diggers, who 
were examined on the occasion referred to, that those men who 
happened 10 be standing immediately over a corpse, of which the 
abdomen was suddenly struck into by a pickaxe, often fell down 
on a sudden in a state of apparent death; while those who were 
at a greater distance, and received the noxious effluvia in a more 
diluted state, were attacked with nausea, giddiness, tremors and 
faintness, which symptoms continued for several hours. 


100 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


THE LABORATORY. 


Before fully entering upon the subject of embalming, it may 
not be out of place to make mention of the room devoted to that 
purpose. 

As a general thing, undertakers will find it to their advantage 
to have set aside, either in the rear part of their store, or at some 
other convenient point of the building, a room of moderate di¬ 
mensions, exclusively for the purpose of preparing bodies. It 
may also be used either for the purpose of holding inquests, post 
mortem examinations, or as a morgue. 

Although the purpose for which it is intended, be that of a 
laboratory or room where the bodies for embalming is carried on, 
undisturbed by the traffic of the office, it will be found very use¬ 
ful for the above named object. Very often physicians, who may 
be wanting to investigate the immediate cause of death in some 
of their patients, and who can not prosecute the necessary in¬ 
vestigations either in their own office or at the house of the de¬ 
ceased will avail themselves with pleasure, of the opportunity 
thus offered to them. The advantages of this arrangement to 
the undertaker are obvious and require no explanation. 

The room shall be well ventilated and lighted, and everything 
so arranged as to be within reach; a sink with a water faucet 
shall occupy a corner of the room; in the center an embalming 
board, with longitudinal grooves, on trestles, the head elevated 
about a foot higher than the feet, so as to allow all liquids to run 
down and be collected in a pail at the lower extremity, without 
unnecessarily soiling the floor; a closet or cupboard for chemicals 
which, by the way, ought always to be kept locked up. It is 
also necessary to keep a certain amount of the preparation used 
in daily practice, already mixed for use at a moment’s notice. 
The preceding recommendation will prevent mistakes, and do 
away with the confusion attendant upon a hasty call. A very 
useful custom, and one that cannot be too highly praised, is that 
of keeping all needful articles for laying out and keeping a body, 
in a satchel, which can be carried about in the hand, without the 
least inconvenience. The contents shall include all that is nec¬ 
essary to preserve bodies, say for five or six days, without the 
use of ice. The annexed list will furnish the explanation. 

Two sponges for washing purposes; these shall be thoroughly 



TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


101 


cleaned after using. A small post mortem case, containing a 
cartilage knife, two scalpels, two catheters, one pair scissors, 
forceps or nippers, hook to raise arteries and four crooked 
needles assorted, also a skein of surgeon’s silk. These instru¬ 
ments shall be carefully cleaned before returning to the case. 

Two pint bottles fluid for injecting stomach and bowels and 
one pint bottle fluid for the complexion (bleaching fluid) it 
can be diluted to suit, when using. 

Some cotton for stopping air passages and rectum. Two cups 
for collecting blood from the jugulars, should the veins be so con¬ 
gested as to require emptying of their contents, a few bandages, 
oiled silk cloth 12 x 18 inches. 

A rubber syringe for injecting either the stomach, lungs or 
bowels with injecting needle, flexible tube, arterial tubes, and 
trochar, this should be well cleansed after using, and also the 
leather forming the head of the plunger be saturated with gly¬ 
cerine; it will keep it moist and free from getting sticky, which 
may happen when oil is used. A bottle of some pungent, aro¬ 
matic liquid which will serve to disguise the smell, always more 
or less unpleasant near a corpse. 

An eight ounce bottle containing tannic acid to dust in cavi¬ 
ties of the thorax (chest) or abdomen before closing the wound. 

A one ounce bottle of liquid muriate of ammonia, which is in¬ 
valuable to cauterize any scratch, abraison of the skin, or cut on 
the hands of the operator while at work. Also some adhesive 
plaster. 


STATE OF BODY AFTER DEATH. 


As a most important matter, the conditions of a body as in¬ 
fluenced by the cause of death, should be made a study of and 
fully understood, before proceeding any farther. These different 
circumstances may so influence the state of the body, that the 
process of embalming, as given hereafter and as usually practiced, 
may not be successful. I repeat an assertion already made, 
that one body having been treated successfully in a certain man¬ 
ner, yet the same method may fail in another case, although the 
same chemicals may have been used in both instances, and given 
full satisfaction in the first, they failed to accomplish their ob¬ 
ject in the last. It is a well known fact that the arterial system 




102 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


must be intact and without lesions, if the injecting fluid is to be 
carried in a thorough manner, and by the natural channels 
through the body—therefore any rupture in the arteries may 
cause the fluid to escape at that point, and fill the neighboring 
cavities. The result would certainly not in that case be satis¬ 
factory to the operator; for as the fluid would thus be arrested in 
its course, and fail to permeate the tissues through the arteries, 
veins and smaller vessels, the corpse would soon putrefy in con¬ 
sequence. Destructive inflammation of the surrounding tissues 
may invade and destroy the walls of an artery. Thus, ulcera¬ 
tion of the brachia, may perforate the aorta, gangrene of the 
lungs, ulcer of the stomach, etc. 

Let us suppose that the operator chooses the femoral artery as 
a point of injection. The injecting fluid will fill the arteries of 
the abdomen and chest until it reaches a ooint where the walls 
of the arteries are ruptured, and then will lose itself into the 
surrounding cavities, thereby failing to reach the upper portion 
of the body. It will of course, in an instance of this kind, be 
found necessary to inject again at some other point situated in 
a higher part of the body, as for instance the axillery artery. 
It is therefore easily understood that: First—The cause of 
death may so effect the arterial system that the point selected 
for injecting may not be the proper one. Second—That it may 
be necessary to inject the body at different points. Third— 
That in many cases, the cause of failure does not lay in the lack 
of the chemicals used, but in the need of discrimination on the 
part of the embalmer, in choosing the proper place for injecting, 
and also his ignorance of where that place should be. It is there¬ 
fore patent, that should the course of the arteries and veins be 
not readily understood by the operator, it will be a rather hard 
matter for him to discover the cause of his failure. 


REACHING THE PRINCIPAL ARTERIES. 


To Reach theFemoral Artery .—Extend the limbs, toes up, com¬ 
mence the incission at the centre of the thigh, about three inches 
from its juncture with the groin, cutting downward in a straight 
line about three inches, cut but little deeper than the skin, un¬ 
derneath you will find some fatty tissue, which separate carefully 




TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


103 


with the handle of lance and fingers; an artery and vein in a 
sheath will now be exposed; the artery presenting a light color 
and relaxed condition , and the vein a dark, mottled color filled 
with blood. The same is true of the common carotid artery and 
the jugular vein. 

To reach the artery, it will be necessary to open the sheath 
carefully, then make an incission lengthwise in the artery, just 
large enough to admit the entrance of the tube, then tie the 
artery firmly round the tube; be sure that the tube penetrates 
the inner coat of the artery. 

To reach the carotid artery , turn the head of the subject to¬ 
ward the left side , and make an incision in the neck about tivo 
inches in length , reaching in a straight line from the angle of the 
jaw-bone to the base of th eneck, or midway between the ear and 
collar bone; the head should then be bent in such a way as to relax 
the mastoideus muscle; open the sheath, same as directed above, 
raise up the artery with a pair of forceps, make the incision as 
above, then insert the tube point down wards, tie the artery back 
of the potnt of injection to prevent escape of fluid. This artery 
is not often used by undertakers, as an incision on the neck is 
too much exposed. To reach the brachial artery , extend the 
right arm with palm of the hand up, make an incision about 
three inches , above the bend of the elbow, between the muscles 
and the bone, or raise the right arm above the head with the 
palm of the hand up, then with the thumb of the left hand placed 
over the muscle, cut when the bone is nearest to the skin. The 
artery will be found in the same sheath with the basilic vein ; 
open the sheath carefully and insert tube in the artery as above 
described, point towards the head of subject and inject the fluid. 
The axillary artery is the same as the brachial; it is higher up, 
and the operation is performed by cutting at the pit of the arm. 
It is here found to be a little larger, and perhaps stronger than 
the Brachial artery. You are cautioned to watch the face close¬ 
ly, and see that it does not blacken while injecting. These last 
two arteries on the right arm, are the most convenient for em¬ 
balming the bodies of ladies or children, but in bad cases you 
will have to use the femoral artery. 

After withdrawing the tube from any of those above named 
arteries, tighten the ligatures firmly, powder a little arsenic in the 


104 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


gash, close the orifice with a few stitches, and if necessary, con¬ 
ceal the same with a piece of flesh-colored court-plaster. 


PRESERVATION OF ANIMAL MATTER. 


The perfect preservation of animal substances presents a vast 
and interesting field to the profession, and having now become a 
most important branch of the undertaking business, it has been 
thought proper, to bring together under the same and general 
term of “Preservation of Animal Matter ,” all the various means 
hitherto employed in the arts and sciences, for the purpose of 
which we are now speaking. 

The most excellent works of Lecanu, and several other au¬ 
thors on this subject, have furnished us with precious documents. 

General Means .—Dessication could be applied indistinctly to 
the preservation of all animal substances which are liable to un¬ 
dergo putrid decomposition; but among these substances a large 
number can be and are preserved without having recourse to the 
agency of the dessicating process, and to this and four other 
methods present themselves, each and all of them promising spe¬ 
cific advantages of its own, and every one also carrying with it 
its own mode of appliance subjective to the requirements of the 
case and the nature of the body to be experimented upon. 

1st. Morbid animal matter can be preserved by congelation. 

2nd. By preventing a direct contact of these substances with 
the surrounding atmosphere. 

3rd. By surrounding animal substances with others, without 
combining together, will prevent putrefaction. 

4th. By bringing them in direct contact with other substances 
capable of producing, by intimate combination, new compounds 
which render them imputrescible. 

This last mode embodies in itself the fundamental principle of 
the science of embalming, and will form the principal portion of 
our study. However, and to systematize our researches, ex¬ 
amples and deductions of this subject, we will follow autom¬ 
atically the plan traced at the commencement of this lecture. 

Dessication can be either natural or artificial. It is natural 
when we depend solely on the action of the atmosphere upon the 




TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 105 

substances to be thus preserved; for instance, the charqui is a 
method employed in some warm countries for the preservation of 
meat. The lean parts of the flesh of animals are cut in long thin 
strips and exposed to the heat of the sun, being careful to turn 
it over occasionally so as to completely dcssicate every part of it, 
it is then pulverized in mortars, and the powder thus obtained 
packed in jars; being placed in a dry spot, this becomes a nutri¬ 
tious article of diet, which remains sweet, so long as it is pro¬ 
tected from the influences of atmospheric moisture. It is artifi¬ 
cial when produced by the heat of an oven; in this instance, the 
degree of heat must be so graduated as to dissipate the moisture 
of the substances without scorching, or causing an exudation of 
the albumen or fibrine contained in the tissues, as the coagula¬ 
tion of those two substances must remain the only objective 
point. 

Congelation .—Some northern nations have applied this method 
to the preservation of meat and fish. As an instance of the pre¬ 
serving power of cold, it is said that a Dinotherium , a gigantic 
animal of prehistoric times, and which had undoubtedly' been 
caught alive in the ice, was found imbedded in a glacier on the 
shores of the river Lena in 1802. After being freed from its icy 
prison, the flesh was greedily eaten by the Laplanders, although 
geologists concur in their statement that the animal had been 
thus entombed for several thousand years. 

Since the exploration of the sea of ice between the rivers Lena 
and Kolyma, hundreds of elephants, rhinoceroses, and buffaloes 
have been found buried in the icy soil of those countries. Several 
processes for preserving meats by means of low temperature, 
have lately been employed with success, without the addition of 
any foreign substances. 

PRESERVATION BY INSULATION FROM THE AIR. 

It is obtained in two different ways; the first consists in sur¬ 
rounding the matter to be preserved with substances which ef¬ 
fectually protect it from any contact, with the atmosphere; or 
according to the second, animal matter may be introduced into 
sealed vessels whose air, by allowing its oxygen to combine with 
some of the principles of the substance to be preserved, thereby 
loses its property to develop putrid fermentation. The first 
method forms the basis of the means generally employed in 
museums of natural history, for the preservation of specimens, by 


106 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


immersing them in volatile oils. Another mode, similar to the 
one we are now describing, by its action and effects, consists in 
varnishing the objects to be preserved with resinous alcoholic 
solutions, as gutta percha dissolved in chloroform, sulphuret of 
carbon, etc., which by evaporation leave an impervious coat on the 
surface of these objects. 

- For the preservation of microscopic preparations, Mr. Pacini 
has proposed the following formula: 

Bichloride of mercury, 1 part, chloride of iodine, 2 parts, 
glycerine, 13 parts, distilled water, 113 parts. 

Let the liquid rest for two months, then add 3 more parts of 
distilled water, and filter. 

Mr. Latur preserves anitomical preparations by means of a so¬ 
lution of iodine or bromine as follows; 

Iodine 5 parts, tartar emetic 6 parts, distilled water 300 parts, 
or bromine 5 parts, tartar emetic 6 parts, distilled water 500 
parts. 

Mr. Moullardi proposes the following: Immerse the objects 
for two weeks, in a solution of corrosive sublimate 2 parts, and 
glycerine 20 parts; drain until dry and extend on the whole a 
coat of varnish as above. Glycerine however, has now become 
the best general agent of preservation. 

The method of preserving meats and vegetables in air tight 
vessels is too well known to be described here; as to the various 
results obtained in the preservation of bodies by means of metal¬ 
lic coffins hermetically sealed, and without any previous prepa¬ 
ration of the body, success so far has been the exception, but not 
the general rule. 

The third mode of preservation, that of macerating animal 

substances in a saturated solution of common salt, has been 

» 

known and employed from time immemorial. By adding nitrate 
of potash, the solution acquires the property of maintaining the 
red color of the tissues; it is even said to make it more intense. 

For the preservation of specimens of myology, the following 
has been extensively used in England and always with success, 
for it preserves the red color of muscles as well as that of tissues. 
Brown sugar 5 ounces, common salt 10 ounces, nitrate of potash 
7$ ounces, distilled water ^ gallon. 

In 1872 Mr. Van Vetter proposed for the preservation of ana¬ 
tomical preparations a solution composed as follows: 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


107 


Glycerine 1 pint* brown sugar 2 ounces, saltpeter 2 ounces, 
distilled water gallon. 

In 1873 Mr. Jaquez employed the borate of soda, boracic acid, 
and all the borates in general for the same purpose. 

The process of preservation, applied by Dr. Morgan, which 
bears some similarity to that of Dr Gannal, consists in injecting 
into the subject a strong solution of salt and nitrate of potassa, 
having first emptied the circulating system of the blood therein 
contained, by injecting weak alcohol. 

In 1866 Mr. Shaler brought to public notice a new mode of 
preservation by means of carbonic acid, dry and chemically pure. 

A number of other methods have also been used with more or 
less success—by repeated immersions in a solution of sulphate of 
alumina; gum tragacanth; acetate of soda; acetate of lime; by 
means of sulphurous acid (braconnat;) with the oxide of carbon 
(pelouze:) by saturating completely with a solution of isinglass, 
sugar, and gum arabic, to which 2 per cent, of fuschin was added. 

Recently Mr. Redwood of London, thought it possible to pre¬ 
serve meat indefinitely by plunging it in paraffine liquified. To 
get rid of it, the meat is immersed in boiling water, the paraffine 
is set free bj melting, and can be used again for the same pur¬ 
pose. 

The fourth method employed for the preservation of organic 
animal matter, and that which most particularly must arrest our 
attention, and form the theme of our future studies is, the judi¬ 
cious manipulation of substances, which are capable of forming 
with animal matter, combinations and compounds perfectly im- 
putrescible. Creasote , aloohol, tannin, bichloride of mercury, 
the salts of iron, of zinc, of alumina , carbolic acid, arsenic, the 
protochloride of tin, thymol, glycerine , the borates in general, 
salycilic acid, etc., are among those, best known, most frequently 
employed. Creasote is one of the best means used for the pur¬ 
pose; it is also the most ancient, Cedria, which has been made 
use of, in the embalming of bodies by several nations of antiquity ? 
is analogous to the oil of cade which obviously contains a large 
per centage of creasote. It is then to this substance much more 
than to the other products of the cedrium proper, that we must 
attribute its preserving properties. It is also to the properties 
of creasote that flesh is preserved in the smoking of meats. This 
method carries within itself two distinct and effectual means of 


108 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


preservation; first, a partial dessication of the animal substances: 
second, their thorough impregnation by the pyrogenous products 
of smoke. Creasote alone, devoid of all other pyrogenous pro¬ 
ducts, possesses in the highest degree anti-putrid properties. A 
mixture of creasote 1 ounce, and distilled water 50 ounces, has 
been proposed as an advantageous means of effectually preserv¬ 
ing anatomical preparations. 

Benzine , oil of tar, or simply their emanations have been found 
highly useful in preserving animal and vegetable matter. The 
same may be said of phenic acid. Phenic acid water , which is 
a compound of phenic acid, 1 ounce , distilled water 50 ounces , 
has proved to be a cheap and excellent substitute for al¬ 
cohol in preserving subjects of natural history by immersion. 
Chloroform mixed with water in the proportion above given for 
phenic acid, has also shown some good results. We find alcohol 
most generally used in museums of natural history to preserve 
by immersion specimens of animal preparations. But sugar and 
brandy will preserve the encephalic matter still better than al¬ 
cohol, as it communicates to it a remarkable density. The ef¬ 
fects of tannic acid seems to be exerted almost in a specific mat¬ 
ter upon the skin, with which it forms incorruptible compounds. 


PRESERVATION OF BODIES. 


The modern method of embalming is very rapid and simple 
when it is compared with the ancient. 

A large artery of the dead body is exposed and opened, and 
into the vessel a hollow needle is inserted. The needle is firmly 
tied in its place. Through the needle a solution of chloride of 
zinc is injected slowly until it has found its way over every part. 
The principal art that is required in this process is to be very 
careful not to use too much force in driving the fluid into the 
tissues, and in not using too much fluid. The fluid which ans¬ 
wers best is made as follows: Into two pints of water, at 50° F. 
add chloride of zinc slowly until the water just refuses to take 
up any more of the salt. Then add one pint of water more and 
two pints of methylated spirit. The five pints so produced are 
a sufficient quantity for embalming an adult body. The solu- 




TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


100 


tion can be injected quite cold, and it will find its way readily 
over the vessels. If expense be not considered, pure alcohol 
may be used instead of the methylated spirit. The effect of 
the solution is shown by its making the surface of the skin 
white, firm, and, for a short time, slightly mottled. 

The apparatus necessary is extremely simple, and lies on 
the table. It consists of a small ordinary anatomical case» 
and of an injecting bottle and S 3 7 ringe. The bottle will hold six 
pints of fluid, but it need not be quite filled. The neck of it is 
fitted with two tubes, which make it act like the common wash 
bottle of the laboratory, so that when through the tube on the 
right hand side, air is forced through the syringe which is 
attached to the tube, the pressure on the surface of the fluid 
forces the fluid up the long tube in the bottle and over the tube 
on the left-hand side. The left-hand tube terminates in a stop¬ 
cock, to which the needle that has to be inserted into the artery 
is joined. The tube leading to the bottle is of India rubber, of 
an eighth of an inch bore, and may be several feet long. Before 
the arterial needle is tied in the arterj 7 the stop-cock is turned 
off, that no fluid may pass. When the needle is fixed, the stop¬ 
cock is opened and the bottle is raised on a table three feet 
above the level of the lower end of the injecting tube. As a 
rule, the fluid will now descend by its own weight and gravitate 
all over the body; but if it fail to do this, the pressure of the 
syringe for a short time will be sufficient to carry on the current. 

When the fluid has slowly diffused, until it has been all passed 
into the vessels, a pint of solution of silicate of soda may be in¬ 
jected with a syringe through the artery, by which the structures 
will be rendered very black, the silicate undergoing a verj 7 thor¬ 
ough coagulation in contact with the zinc. This final plan is, 
however, not really required. It is, as a rule, merely necessar} 7 
to remove the hollow needle from the artery, tie the artery above 
and below the place where it has been opened, and merely close 
the opening where it has been made. The operation is now 
complete. There is nothing in it of a kind to give rise to any 
of the sensational stories which have been raised in regard to it, 
that is to say, when it is properly conducted. It is not more 
objectionable than the ordinary examination of a body to dis¬ 
cover the cause of death. 

The following process is intended to preserve bodies without 


no 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


the use of ice, merely until the time of the funeral may arrive. 
Sometimes this ceremonial may be delayed for three or four days, 
or until some member of the family who may be at some distance 
can arrive. It is also intended to take the place of the cumbrous 
refrigerator, and substitute for the labor of removing ice, carry¬ 
ing the box to and from the residence, the more simple and less 
laborious process of injecting the abdominal viscera. 

The first step to be taken upon arrival at the chamber of 
death, is to create a current of fresh air by lowering the upper 
part of a window, or a couple of them, if there is no transom 
light over the door. Next, remove the body from the bed and 
place it on a cooling board; this board ought to be elevated 
about one foot at the head; also, the head of the body should be 
raised at an angle of about forty five degrees; this disposition of 
the body will allow the fluids contained in the.circulatory system 
to go down of their own gravitation, and leave the face, neck and 
upper part of the body uncongested, and therefore free from the 
purple spots that gradually discolor the face and neck. 

The mouth must next be firmly closed, by means of a ligature 
tied firmly around the head and passed under the apex of the 
chin; this ligature should be kept in place until the rigor mortis 
has firmly set the jaws together. 

A great improvement upon the old way of tying a cloth around 
the head, is to use a band of some wide, elastic labric, of which 
several sizes must be kept on hand, as when this presses too 
tightly it leaves upon the face, especially on fat persons, un¬ 
sightly wrinkles. 

The eyes must next be attended to; the lids must be brought 
together firmly, avoiding at the same time interferences of the 
lashes, or the creation of wrinkles of the skin on the corner; 
make two small pads, not larger than the size of a quarter of a 
dollar, and saturate them thorough^ with the solution of the 
following: Alum, eight ounces; corrosive sublimate , two ounces; 
and distilled water, one gallon, before applying to the eyes. The 
face and the body should be washed all over with tepid water 
and soap, and perfectly dried with towels; make a diaper out of 
some cloth, fasten the same firmly around the loins, and pin the 
same well in front. The face should be well moistened with the 
above solution, and a double cloth laid carefully and evenly over 
the features, so as to come in direct contact with every part of 






TREATISE ON EMBALMING. Ill 

the same; this cloth must be kept moist with the solution and 
remain there until such time as the body is placed in the coffin. 
Fold neatly some small pieces of cotton, saturate them well with 
the solution, and cover over the chest and the abdomen. 

Caution .—This solution should be diluted with one-half water 
for use on children, or persons whose skin is very fine. It must 
be kept also from a strong light in a glass bottle, and should, 
when used, never be mixed in a metallic vessel, but in a bowl, 
cup, or some dish of queensware or china. 

The next step to be taken, consists in preventing frothing or 
purging from the mouth and nostrils; also, keeping down gener¬ 
ation of gases, and swelling of the stomach and bowels. 

Make an incision about four or five inches in length in the 
abdomen, above the transverse arch of the colon; this incision 
will reveal the colon and upper part of the large intestines, also 
the stomach a little to the left; the colon and some of the smaller 
intestines are punctured, and after expelling the gases and air 
by firmly pressing on the abdomen, are injected with about eight 
ounces of the solution as hereafter given; the bowels being in¬ 
jected, the stomach is emptied of its contents by puncturing its 
walls, and by pressing gently upon its outer surface in a down¬ 
ward direction; the matter contained in it will be forced out into 
the pleural cavity, and can then be either sponged or scooped 
out; the stomach is then injected in a similar manner as the 
bowels; some of the solution is then poured between the inter¬ 
stices of the bowels, and some cotton batting laid evenly over the 
bowels, the cotton well saturated with the same solution; the lips 
of the wound are then brought together and neatly sewed up. It 
will be readily understood by the above described operation that 
no gases can be generated in either the bowels or stomach, as 
th$ injecting fluid in those parts of the viscera will effectually 
prevent their formation, and this being the case, the purging at 
the mouth and nostrils, which is the result of the escape of gas 
driving out the contents of the stomach, is avoided. The expan¬ 
sion of the abdominal viscera, or the bowels, is also prevented by 
the same cause. 

It will be understood that this process cannot be applied where 
the corpse is that of a person who has died of some contagious 
or infectious disease. Besides the danger to the operator in this 
case, it is not customary to retain for any length of time the re- 


112 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


mains of those who may have died from the effects of an epi¬ 
demic. 

Herewith I give the ingedients of the solutions which have 
been found to act admirably well: Dissolve in one gallon of 
water as much alum as the water will take up, shaking at inter¬ 
vals; then pour off the clear liquid, and add to it two ounces of 
chloride of zinc, and two ounces corrosive sublimate. Keep this 
injecting solution in a cool, dark place; when the preparation is 
to be used in warm weather, add one ounce of creosote to the 
above. 

The above process has of late been greatly simplified and ren¬ 
dered less laborious by the addition of the hollow needle to the 
undertaker’s list of instruments. This little sharp-pointed steel 
tube, perforated at the extremity, affords alike a means of egress 
to the gases accumulated in the body, and also serves to intro¬ 
duce the preserving liquid into the thoracic and abdominal cavi¬ 
ties. The needle, when dexterously used and skillfully handled, 
completely, and with advantage, replaces the knife for several 
reasons: 

First .—The needle, when adroitly directed into the several 
organs, or parts of the viscera which are to be relieved from the 
gases therein accumulated, will effect the intended purpose thor¬ 
oughly, and without having a wound of undue proportions. 

Second .—It will reach deeply-set organs and cavities, which 
otherwise would necessitate extensive operations with the knife. 

Third .—It reduces the processof preservation to a very sim¬ 
ple operation which can be performed in a short time and with¬ 
out any further attention being required on the part of the oper¬ 
ator. But if the advantages derived from a judicious manipula¬ 
tion of the needle will benefit the operator in the handling of the 
bodies, it also becomes equally inert, and almost useless, where 
the operator reveals his lack of familiarity with the different uses 
to which it can be adapted, and his ignorance of its most useful 
results. 

We will now proceed to illustrate, as far as practicable, the 
process of preserving bodies by means of this useful instrument. 
The body being laid on a cooling board, and all preliminary de¬ 
tails having been attended to, the needle is inserted in the abdo¬ 
men at or near the umbilicus; the point is directed towards and 
into the stomach; a gentle pressure with the hand over this 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


113 


organ will cause the gases and liquid contents to escape through 
the needle. This done, the instrument is drawn back about half 
its length, and brought down vertically, almost in a straight line 
with the middle of the sternum, so as to perforate the transverse 
part of the colon, or large intestines. The gas or any liquid then 
contained in that part of the viscera, will thus find an outlet. 
This same operation may be repeated for the other parts of the 
abdomen containing the small intestines, and the needle may 
then be withdrawn. As to the gases or liquids which may have 
accumulated between the intestines and the walls of the abdo¬ 
men, they will escape through the needle or the small aperture 
caused by it. To assist in thus expelling morbid products, 
whether gaseous or fluid, the hand may be applied to the differ¬ 
ent parts which the needle is supposed to have perforated, press¬ 
ing gently, and in such a way as to direct the escape to the out¬ 
let left by the needle. It is not expected that the solid contents 
of the stomach, or the faeces contained in the bowels, can be got 
rid of through the agency of the needle, but we consider that the 
properties of the fluid thereafter injected into and around these 
organs will arrest the putrid tendencies of those substances. 

This part of the operation having been satisfactorily perform¬ 
ed, inject through the nostrils, by means of the flexible tube, as 
much of the fluid as the chest will contain. This part of the 
process can be performed in a more complete manner by artific¬ 
ially reproducing the movements of respirations, while the injec¬ 
tion is taking place through the nostrils. When the quantity of 
fluid thus injected has filled the trachea, further injection must 
be suspended, and the nostrils filled with cotton. 

The cavity of the chest surrounding the lungs, and the lungs 
themselves, can be injected by forcing the needle under the lower 
part of the sternum and injecting by turns the right and left 
sides of the body. To inject the fluid into the abdomen and 
stomach, the handling of the needle is the same as above given 
for the expulsion of gases, and inject through the needle from 
the same perforation made. Before puncturing the body with 
the hollow needle , stretch the skin to one side , so as to cover the 
opening made in the Jlesh after the same is withdrawn. 

It is well in warm weather not to dress a corpse in the exterior 
clothing until the temperature of the body has cooled off to that 


8 


114 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


of the ambient air. The use of the needle, therefore, in this in¬ 
stance, does away with the knife, leaves a barely perceptible 
trace behind, no gaping wound, suture, or in fact, any of the 
usual marks of .surgical operations, which at all times will im¬ 
press the bystander in a more or less unpleasant manner. 

Another important feature lies in the fact, that the body need 
not be in a state of nudity to successfully apply the process; a 
small rent in the clothing, or an opening in the dress, however 
diminutive, will be sufficient for practical purposes. However 
when the remains of a person are to be thoroughly embalmed, the 
arterial injection should always and at all times precede that of 
the needle, for the good reason that the introduction of the needle 
into the abdomen or the chest is always attended with some dan¬ 
ger to the integrity of the circulating system. The point of the 
needle may so wound or lacerate the walls of the numerous 
arteries enclosed in the thorax and abdomen, that, should a sub¬ 
sequent injection of the arterial tree be performed, the course of 
the liquid would terminate at this point, and overflow into the 
surrounding tissues or cavity. 

In some instances, when the bod}' is that of a stout, fleshy per¬ 
son, or especially when some length of time has elapsed from the 
time of death, until the undertaker has been called in, and par¬ 
ticularly if the body has been reclining in a horizontal position, 
the face, neck and shoulders will be found highly congested with 
blood; the face, in fact, may be swelled and of a purple appear¬ 
ance, owing to the extravasation of blood into the capillary ves¬ 
sels under the skin. 

In such cases, and after the body has been removed and placed 
into a proper position on the cooling board, if the blood is not 
carried to some lower part of the body, by its own gravitation, it 
may be found necessary to cut into the jugular veins, on either 
side of the neck, or only into one of them, an incision about a 
quarter of an inch; through this opening the congested blood 
may be let out, and the face will soon recover its original color. 
This process, which occupies about twenty minutes, will be found 
preferable to the use of ice, with the bustle occasioned in the 
house of mourning by carrying in and out a large and cumbrous 
ice box, etc. 

Lecanu, in his researches on the preservation of bodies, has 
thus described his process: The body of a man, aged thirty-three 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


115 


years, who died of typhoid fever, was brought in for dissection. 
The external appearance of the corpse presented strong marks of 
dissolution. The abdomen, already slightly tinged with greenish 
streaks, was distended with gas; the neck and lower part of the 
face showed unmistakable sffins of swelling, and the evolution of 
internal gases caused a frothy mucous to appear at the corners 
of the mouth, the popliteal arteiy was uncovered and the conula 
of a syringe containing ten centilitres introduced into the vessel. 
Five litres of a lluid compound of equal parts of alcohol , water 
and glycerine , holding one-fourth part of carbolic acid in solu¬ 
tion, were thus injected into the body. Gradually the abdomen 
resumed its normal size, the bluish green tint of the skin faded 
perceptibly. After injecting the seventh litre , about eleven 
grammes of mucous were ejected from the mouth. The operation 
was then suspended, and the artery firmly tied up. The canula 
of the syringe was then inserted and the lower parts of the limb 
treated in a similar manner. On the next day the incipient 
swelling of the head and neck had disappeared, and the discolor¬ 
ation of the abdomen scarcely visible. Nine weeks afterwards 
the subject was still in a perfect state of preservation, in spite of 
adverse circumstances, and was used in the prosecution of ana¬ 
tomical studies. 

A body of a dead person was put in a coffin, covered first with 
dry bran, then filled with perfectly dry powdered charcoal, the 
lid was closed and made air-tight. The coffin was kept in a dry, 
dark place. Six months afterwards the lid of the coffin was re¬ 
moved and the body found perfectly preserved. There was no 
odor of any kind, and the features were perfect. 


EMBALMING AS A SCIENCE. 


Hereafter I shall have something to say of the word embalm¬ 
ing; meanwhile, I will take for granted that each of you attaches 
a familiar meaning to the word, and in that sense for the moment 
I will leave it. 

It has been a custom among ancient nations to preserve the 
bodies of the dead for a long period of time. Even to this day 
we find traces of it in the mummies of Egypt and the sarcophagi 




116 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


of Etruria. Their method of achieving this result may not have 
been strictly in accordance with the principles of modern science; 
certainly their success would hardly be satisfactory to the more 
refined tastes of our generation. Still their discoveries in this 
art have been such, that they have commanded the respect of 
modern savants. They also show conclusively that the sciences 
of chemistry and physiology, even at that remote period, had at¬ 
tained a certain degree of prominence among their scientific men. 
Many of their discoveries were, no doubt, accidental, still we 
must give them credit for the spirit of investigation which act¬ 
uated their researches, and carried them on undaunted through 
the many disappointments they must certainly have encountered 
before they satisfactorily solved the problem. A great number 
of persons cannot revert to the science of embalming without 
placing it among the lost arts; to them a mummy is the con¬ 
temporary of a mysterious past, dimly perceived through the long 
vista of succeeding generations. Let us divest a mummy of his 
bitumen-coated, and fire-scorched bandages; we will then have 
before us a mass of blackened and hardened cement-like sub¬ 
stance, shrunken and emaciated to almost a skeleton, and bear¬ 
ing semblance to the form of a human organism only so far as 
the shape of the osseous frame has retained its symmetry. The 
lips have shrunken apart so far as to expose the row of white 
teeth, the sockets of the eyes are empty, the bones are prominent, 
the whole covered with patches of the dark and almost petrified 
epidermis. Such is the picture a mummy presents to our view 
when denuded of its envelop. It is not to be wondered at, 
therefore, if some associate this repulsive image with the modern 
idea of embalming. . 

Our present object in preparing bodies is two-fold. 

In the first place, we desire to keep perfect for a certain length 
of time the remains of those who have been dear to us while 
living; but when dessication has begun, when the roundness of 
the lines loses itself into the more angular shrinkage of the tis¬ 
sues, then we may take, and without any feeling of horror, a 
last look at the body, and consign it, not to slow, foul corruption, 
but to the gradual drying of the organic substances, without the 
horrible accessions of decay and putrefaction. 

In view of all this, and with the help of modern chemistry it 
is not singular that the art of embalming should have received a 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


117 


new impetus in Europe and this country especially here, where 
it is customary to send back and over long distances the bodies 
of those that have died far from home. This usage has already 
brought about some astonishing results. The large majority of 
our first class undertakers have taken the matter in hand; they 
vie with each other in trying to perfect themselves in an art 
which is growing daily into favor. Almost every day a new an¬ 
tiseptic is, if not discovered, at least brought to exercise its func¬ 
tions in the preservation of organic substances. Of late, new 
methods have been inaugurated on all sides, and among the 
number there are certainly some, which are deserving all the 
merits claimed for them. To use a certain preparation simply 
because it is highly recommended by some, without knowing the 
constituents thereof, is very little short of foolhardiness. How 
is it possible for the operator to employ it with discrimination 
and judgement? Should he be successful, well and good; the 
end would be obtained without he being the wiser for it. Should 
it be otherwise, and the result prove unsatisfactory, how is he to 
account for the failure, and how to guard against a repetition of 
the same in future. A good embalmer, one that really under¬ 
stands his business, does not have recourse to ready-made prepa¬ 
rations for preserving bodies, but he chooses the chemicals ac¬ 
cording to the properties each is known to possess. His experi¬ 
ence of their relative actions teach him beforehand, how they 
will work out the results he anticipated. I do not mean that 
every undertaker and .embalmer should be an Orfila in regard to 
chemistry, nor is it expected that his knowledge of anatomy 
should enable him to till the chair of demonstrator in a dissecting 

4 

room, but to achieve real legitimate success, an embalmer ought 
to possess a thorough knowledge of the drugs he is manipulating, 
their individual effects, singly and collectively, and under differ¬ 
ent circumstances, upon subjects of different natures. A certain 
amount of the acquaintance with the anatomy of the human body 
is not only required but strictly necessary; a gash of the knife 
upon some vessel of the arterial system might jeopardize the 
success of an otherwise satisfactoiy operation. 

It is this rudimentary knowledge physiological chemistry and 
anatomy we endeavored to explain in the former chapters with 
complete instructions upon the best methods which have been 
heretofore and are now employed in the preservation of human 
bodies after death. 


118 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


GASEOUS COMPOUNDS. 


Too little attention has been paid heretofore to the antiseptic 
powers of certain gases. It is a well-known fact that some of the 
gases which are the result of animal and vegetable decomposi¬ 
tions are, to a certain extent, the means of their own disinfection; 
hence, some of these are endowed with deodorizing as well as 
antiseptic properties. 

We have already given at length the properties of chlorine. 
Carbonic acid gas is another of those antiseptic agents which 
will occupy our attention. It exists in the atmosphere as a pro¬ 
duct of combustion, and of the respiration of animals; it is a 
result, also, of the slow decomposition of most vegetable sub¬ 
stances, and is evolved in great quantities from the ground in 
volcanic countries. In the formation of sugar it is produced in 

i 

abundance, along with alcohol. 

For the purpose of the chemist, it is generally prepared by de¬ 
composing marble by means of some stronger acid. From its 
cheapness and solubility of the residual salts, muriatic acid is 
generally employed. 

The properties of carbonic 'acid are very remarkable; it is per¬ 
fectly colorless and invisible; it is irrespirable, producing, when 
an attempt is made to breathe it, violent spasms of the glottis. 
If it be respired mixed with air, even in the proportion of one to 
ten, it gradually produces stupor and death, acting as a narcotic 
poison. Hence, when disengaged in large quantities, whether 
by natural operations or in process of manufacture, it accumu¬ 
lates in all cavities within its reach; and may cause fatal acci¬ 
dents to animals who enter unadvisedly. 

Carbonic acid does not support combustion; a taper plunged 
into a jar full of the gas is instantly extinguished. Carbonic 
acid is also a check on putrefaction, and arrests decay. 

SULPHUROUS ACID. 

Sulphurous acid exists at ordinary temperature and pressure 
in the gaseous form; it is one, however, of the most liquified 
gases. It is produced always when sulphur burns, either in air 
or in pure oxygen; sulphur not being capable of passing directly 
to a higher degree of oxydation. In the burning of sulphur, the 
volume of sulphurous acid gas formed is exactly equal to the 
amount of oxygen consumed. Sulphurous acid gas may also be 



TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


119 


simply prepared by heating three parts of flowers of sulphur with 
four of peroxide of manganese. The reaction is very simple; 
one part of the sulphur uniting with the metal, and another with 
the oxygen, form sulphuret of manganese and sulphurous acid. 
Another and quicker way to obtain this gas in small quantities, 
is to decompose a solution of hyposulphate of soda by adding 
muriatic acid to it, so as to liberate the hyposulphurous acid 
which immediately decomposes into sulphur and sulphurous 
acid. 

Sulphurous acid is absorbed by water. It is colorless and 
transparent, possessing an odor peculiarly irritating, (the smell 
of burning sulphur,) and cannot be breathed. It is not combust¬ 
ible, nor does it support combustion. Water dissolves about 
thirty-seven times its volume of sulphurous acid. The solution 
possesses the properties of the gas in a veiy high degree, and 
bleaches vegetable colors with great power; when kept for some 
time it gradually absorbs oxygen, and the sulphurous becomes 
changed into sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid is one of the 
feeblest acids, and is expelled from its combinations by almost 
all but the carbonic acid. 

As has been demonstrated, all these gases are absorbed by 
water, and a saturated solution possesses the properties of the 
gases themselves. Some manufacturers, taking as a basis the 
antiseptic properties of carbonic acid gas, have brought before 
the public a class of metallic goods styled self embalming cask¬ 
ets. Theoretically, the principle is good; but the requirements 
of its practical usefulness are so numerous that the simple appli¬ 
cation of the gas outside of the body will, in a great majority of 
cases, prove ineffectual. 

The caskets are provided, on the under part of the lid, with a 
receptacle, into which is introduced, through a vent hole in the 
lid, some marble dust and sulphuric acid; immediately upon the 
mixture of these two substances, carbonic acid is generated, 
which, being heavier than air, falls to the bottom of the casket, 
and displacing the air contained in the casket, drives it out, by 
means of its superior density, through the vent hole purposely left 
open in the lid of the casket. After the space of from ten to fif¬ 
teen minutes, which is generally sufficient for the gas to replace 
the atmosphere contained inside the casket, the vent hole is 
closed with a rubber cork, fitting tightly, and the process of 


120 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


preservation thus ends. As we have stated before, the principle 
is good, but the practical result is very seldom satisfactory. 

This generation of carbonic acid gas in an air-tight metallic 
casket, is a good auxiliary to the preservation of a body after 
this same body has been properly embalmed, inasmuch as it de¬ 
stroys effectually the ox}^genation of the corpse by suppressing 
the interior atmosphere. But the circumstances, morbid or other¬ 
wise, which modify the preservation of a body under different 
conditions, make it impossible to depend solely upon that means 
as being certain and efficacious. 


EMBALMING PROCESSES. 


For chemical embalming, it is well known to those having ex¬ 
perience as undertakers and embalmers, that in order to success¬ 
fully perform this kind of work, it requires knowledge as well as 
experience. The various circumstances encountered necessarily 
govern the work. In the writers experience, he finds that when 
difficult and obstinate cases are to be retained for some length of 
time (especially in warm weather) it. will be necessary to com¬ 
plete the work with care. A very important matter in this work 
is to renovate the stomach thoroughly; then, with simple instru¬ 
ments similar to an aspirator needle or trocar, give vent to the 
gases and thus expell them from the cavities of the system; 
Then with pump, draw off or force out the fluids and gases from 
the organs of circulation, and in this manner disinfect the body 
as far as possible. Elevate the head and shoulders for the pur¬ 
pose of letting the inky fluid gravitate from the cappillary system 
of the face, to the large vessels of the chest or thorax. This 
will renew the .life’s characteristics in a remarkable and satis¬ 
factory manner, if the gases be properly removed. 

A simple method of disposing of the gastric juice of the 
stomach is to inject into the nose or mouth one or two ounces of 
an aqueous solution of any 'powerful antiseptic , similar to those 
mentioned in this article, and after a few moments carry the head 
off the bed, and, by gently pressing the stomach, empty its con¬ 
tents. This will prevent further difficulty from purging, if re¬ 
filled with the solution and carefully sealed. Insert an instru- 




TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


121 


merit into the trachea, and thus give vent to the gases in the 
lungs, and inject full of the solution. In the same manner dis¬ 
pose of the gases, from the thorax and fill with solution; also the 
abdominal cavities, by completing this, it will preserve the vis¬ 
cera. The re agents mentioned below render the albumenoids 
material, incapable of putrefaction, by the impervious nature 
of the compounds it forms of all substances that have protein 
for their base, as the tissues readily absorb the preserving solu¬ 
tion after being prepared as mentioned above. 

This unites the antiseptic and deodorizing agent with the very 
substances that it is necessary to render inactive in order to suc¬ 
cessfully retain the remains of deceased persons. 

DEODORIZING AGENTS. 

The following are very good antiseptics and deodorizing agents: 
Chloride of zinc , corrosive sublimate , hyposulphite , oxmuriate 
of mercury , carbolic acid , bicarbonate of potassa , and aqueous 
solution of alumina. The two latter may be rendered more 
subservient by combining them, with the higher oxides. The 
metallic salts are much the best for chemical embalming if prop¬ 
erly used. The remains of drowned persons may be prepared in 
the manner as above, with no small degree of success as giving 
to the gases, and freely applying antiseptics and deodorizing 
agents will readily correct, to a great extent, the difficulties thus 
encountered by this process. We have removed the most de¬ 
structive fluids, or effected a combination with them, thus pre¬ 
venting the fermenting process and dispersing the gases, render¬ 
ing the body absolutely free from those disagreeable and noxious 
odors which are termed phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydro¬ 
gen gases, as well as low types or germs of disease, while the 
life’s characteristics in this state of preservation invaribly present 
a most pleasant appearance, allaying all natural repugnance to 
the dead, as they seem so natural and life like, and remain in 
this state of preservation for a great length of time, or in transit, 
or various changes of atmosphere, while this manner of operation 
is simple and without complication, affording appropriate means 
that undertakers may apply successfully and save themselves 
annoyance, time, labor and expense, by a little practice and ob¬ 
serving closely the directions herein given. 

The enlightenment of the public demands more attention to 
these important matters, as there is no necessity for the untimely 


122 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


and indecent burial of the loved but unfortunate victims of mor¬ 
tality, when due observance is given to the progress of art in 
modern science. To successfully retain the dead for such a 
period of time as will enable the bereaved friends to make such 
arrangements for burial as the occasion may require, without the 
necessity of mutilating the body in the horrible manner that has 
been practised in many instances, will meet the approbation 
of a grateful public. 

Scientific research has defined and established those fixed 
laws of nature, with that precision whereby organic matters may 
be traced to their simple elements. We will herein endeavor to 
very briefly trace, as far as possible the chemical changes that 
are observed in dead animal matter. We assert that in the ma¬ 
jority of cases (with a given temperature maintained) the first 
described subject will be, the first to become an uncontrollable 
mass from the agents of putrefaction: first, simply by the abun 
dance of those fluids contained in subjects that immediately be¬ 
come active agents of dissolution, while such agents have been 
completely exhausted by the disease of the second. 

The apparent healthy condition of the flesh after death is pro¬ 
duced by the favorable temperature that is maintained, dryness 
of the atmosphere, etc, together with the general favorable con¬ 
ditions of the subject, which will render the preservation of such 
remains quite perfect, in some instances for a surprisingly long 
time. It is shown that disease of long standing completely ex¬ 
hausts the vital fluids before death, especially when the func¬ 
tions of the body have failed to produce the necessary nutrition. 
Thus it will be observed that the process of decomposition is 
very different than when the system is full of albumenoids and 
watery fluids, notwithstanding the tissues may have been seized 
upon by putridity before death. With consumptives, the disease 
reduces the flesh to dry parchment, or nearly so, leaving but a 
very small portion of water in the system. Hence, as putrefac¬ 
tion is impossible in the absence of moisture, and the active 
agent albumen, equally reduced, decomposition of such sub¬ 
stances that remain ensues only by a process of decay, slow 
combustion or oxidation, the slowly uniting of oxygen with the 
substance. In this the constituent parts of the animal tissues 
break up into simpler compounds, by the chemical changes that 
nature produces, and differs from other forms of putrefaction 




1 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 123 

» 

only, by the length of time employed. In cases like typhoid 
fever, the flesh, after death, assumes more of a putrid and slough¬ 
ing condition, as the fluids are not so completely exhausted as in 
the former disease, thus leaving more of the active agents in the 
body for its immediate destruction. 

When death is the result of a putrid malady, putrefaction be¬ 
gins almost immediately when the body grows cold; its effects 
are noticeable much sooner when the atmosphere is warm. In 
general, in our climate here, the work of decomposition becomes 
evident after from thirty five to forty hours. Its first effects are 
noticeable on the skin of the stomach; this takes on a greenish 
discoloration, which soon spreads and covers the whole surface 
of the body; at the same time everything is seized upon by what 
is termed putridity; the moist parts soften and decay; little by 
little the flesh sinks and grows watery, and is thus carried away 
or burned up by the air’s oxygen. 

And now, we would impress your mind with the fact that the 
moment of the appearance of putrefaction absolutely varies with 
the degree of outward temperature, the causes of death, and the 
general condition of the remains, and just in accordance to the 
quantity of fluids remaining in the system. The degree of diffi¬ 
culty in retaining the life’s characteristics are encountered, first, 
because of the albumenoids, the active agents of putrefaction; 
second , the large per cent, of water they contain, hence we have 
the necessary mobility of putrefaction, and the very substances 
that are most prone to the active ferments, united with the 
agents of disorganization, vibrois and bacteria, or rather the 
germs of thread-like corpuscles which penetrates the skin and 
wind their way through the ducts into the vessels of circulation 
which seem to conduct the rabid element to every structure. 
The living germs that collect on the surface of the body, and in 
the digestive canal, develop, multiply, pierce into all the points of 
the organism, and produce in it a complete separation of all the 
tissues and humors. ' 

When persons have been killed suddenly, there being no 
disease to tamper with the functions of the body, the process of 
nutrition would be complete until the very moment the vitality 
is removed; hence the supply of fuel for this fire of dissolution. 
The corruption of these animal matters is not more possible than 
the fermentive action of gluten in grape juice, and precisely the 


124 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


same. When these animal matters maintain a high temperature 
the products formed are said to be destructive distillation. 

Many cases are recorded of similar stages of decomposition, 
which is an apparent spontaneous combustion, renewing the 
normal temperature of life, many times giving flushness to the 
cheeks, and thus appearing to have life renewed, notwithstanding 
the body had been cold for many hours previous to this phe¬ 
nomenon taking place, the result of a peculiar chemical action. 
But these instances seldom or never occur, while the difficulty 
encountered is, in completely reducing the heat from the bodies 
of those persons killed by accident, which fact renders the suc¬ 
cessful preservation of such remains for any length of time utterly 
impossible, as the fetid gases are evolved in such great abun¬ 
dance as to literally cook the flesh and escape into the air. De¬ 
veloped in the cadaverous odor, a pungent and ammoniacal stench, 
except there be prompt application of some powerful chemical 
re agent, with which the organized material may enter into com¬ 
bination and thus overcome the evil tendencies of the affinities 
of its elements. 


EMBALMING AND PRESERVATION OF BODIES. 


The embalming of bodies, such as it was practiced years ago, 
and even to the present day in some parts of Europe, had for a 
basis the property of tannin , to form with animal substances in¬ 
soluble compounds not affected by putrefaction; but the systems 
which Chaussier and Gannal brought forth, have rendered the 
use of tannin as an antiseptic agent, employed, per se, an obse- 
lete feature in embalming. This process of Chaussier, skilfully 
modified by Boudet, was as follows: 

The viscera of the body and the brain were removed and pre¬ 
served separately. The cavities left by the removal of these 
organs was filled with tow or cotton, so compressed as to prevent 
the sinking of those parts of the body. 

While these operations were being performed, the body was 
plunged several times alternately in a bath of pure alcohol, and 
in one of alcohol saturated with corrosive sublimate after incis¬ 
ions inherent to the operation had been closed by proper sutures. 




TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


125 


The body was laid in a wooden trough and completely immersed 
in a w.atery solution of corrosive sublimate. After three months 
of maceration the body was taken out, suspended horizontally on 
a network of strong linen bandages in a well-ventilated place, 
and left to dry until completely desiccated. If necessary, the 
sides ot the body were padded by some new addition of tow in 
the interior, to avoid an}' deformation. This process has, among 
other advantages upon the older ones, that of keeping the body 
free from all external envelope which might hide it from sight. 

But this method is not free from many objectionable points. 
In the first place it requires a large quantity of a substance high 
in price, and of rather dangerous manipulation; secondly, the 
operation is long, tedious and difficult; and last , the mutilation 
of the body strikes the relatives and friends with an unconquer¬ 
able feeling of disgust and repugnance. 

The process of Gannal is founded upon the property of alum¬ 
ina to form an imputreseible compound with the pre existing 
matter contained in all animal tissues. Mr. Gannal gives to the 
product of this combination the name of geline , because when 
submitted to the action of boiling water it forms gelatine. The 
embalming of bodies by this means is performed not only with¬ 
out any danger to the operator, but also at a small cost, as the 
substance employed does not command a high price. The time 
required by the operation is comparatively of short duration, as 
a simple injection of the arterial system and a short maceration 
are substituted to the removal of the viscera and the numerous 
incisions of the preceding mode of preservation. Moreover, the 
tissues by this process preserve their specific color and elasticity. 
Th is process, practically employed, consists in injecting through 
one of the caiotid arteries a certain amount of aqueous solution 
of sulphate of alumina. This injection is followed for two or 
three days by a maceration of the whole body in the same liquid. 

In the competitive experiments, which took place about twenty 
years ago, in the presence of a committee of eminent physicians, 
in Paris, France, Mr. Gannal is said to have made use of an 
injecting solution composed of equal parts of sulphate and chlo¬ 
ride of alumina at a density of 34°. Those who entered the list 
against Mr. Gannal made use of: 1st, Mr. Dupre—carbonic and 
sulphurous acid. 2d, Mr. Sucquet—introducing in the arterial 
system, in the same manner as Mr. Gannal, a solution of chlo- 


126 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


ride of zinc, marking 43° F. It must be remembered here that 
the second was the successful competitor. For simply preserv¬ 
ing anatomical preparations, Mr. Sucquet uses a concentrated 
solution of hyposulphite of soda, and the solution of chloride 
of zinc, as given above, for the preservation of bodies. 

It has been said, by different authors, that it was to the pres¬ 
ence of arsenic in the liquids used by Mr. Gannal that this gen¬ 
tleman owed his numerous successes afterwards in the preserva¬ 
tion of bodies. It is, however, forbidden in France to use 
arsenic for the embalming of bodies, although this substance 
forms the basis of several preparations employed in preserving 
specimens of natural history. The arsenical soap of Becoeur is 
extensive^ used for that purpose. It is also by means of arsen- 
iated alcohol, (alcohol in which arsenious acid has been macer¬ 
ated for several months,) that insects are preserved in their nor¬ 
mal integrity. 

Process of Dr. Franchina .—This process of embalming con¬ 
sists in injecting in the crural arteries one gallon and a half, or 
two gallons, according to circumstances, of the following solu¬ 
tion : Two pounds of arsenic in ten pints of distilled water, or 
in brandy. It is evident that a greater part of the arsenic in¬ 
jected is held in suspension in the liquid, for in the above prep¬ 
arations it cannot be entirely dissolved. According to the 
authority of different writers, bodies thus treated can be pre¬ 
served indefinitely, but they desiccate in a rather short time. 

THE PRESERVATION OF MEAT BY CARBONIC ACID 

Since 1874, when Professor Kolbe, of Leipsic, first published 
his results on the antiseptic action of salicylic acid, he has made 
many efforts to apply this acid to the preservation of meat, but 
he has invariably found that after the lapse of a few days an un¬ 
pleasant flavor has been developed, which is not that of putridity. 
If putrid changes be noticed, it is a sign that salicylic acid is in 
insufficient quantity, for where it has turned putrid the meat is 
found to be no longer acid, but alkaline. This leads to the as¬ 
sumption that meat is protected from change by acids, even by 
gases of that kind; and in fact it was noticed that beef—from 2 
to 5 kilos being taken—when placed in an earthen vessel and 
loosely covered with a wooden cover, was long preserved from pu¬ 
tridity if the bottom of the vessel contained some hydrochloric 
acid, nitric acid, or aqueous sulphurous acid. The meat, how- 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


127 


ever, no longer had the taste of fresh meat, but of such as had 
long lain in ice. Experiments were therefore made with carbonic 
acid, and these proved highly successful. The meat was placed 
in a cylinder of metal plate, and suspended from a rod which 
crossed the upper part and the lower part. A small tube serves to 
admit a current of carbonic acid from a Kipp’s apparatus. The 
lid, which rested in a circular trough of glycerine, was traversed 
by a similar tube in its center, and both tubes could be closed 
with India rubber tubing and screw taps as soon as sufficient 
carbonic gas had traversed the apparatus. At the end of seven, 
fourteen, and twenty-one days it was found that the meat was 
still quite good, and the soup prepared from it was in every re¬ 
spect excellent. At the end of the fourth or fifth week the meat 
thus preserved in the gas was still quite free from all putridity; 
but the broth prepared from it no longer tasted so well as fresh 
soup. The experiments were not extended over a longer time. 
Carbonic acid is thus shown to be an excellent means of preserv¬ 
ing beef from putridity and of causing it to retain its good taste 
for several weeks. Mutton does not preserve so well. In eight 
days it had become putrid; and veal is by no means so well pre¬ 
served as beef. The comportment of beef in an atmosphere of 
carbonic acid, to which carbonic oxide has been added, is curious. 
A number of C 3 dinders were filled in the usual way with such a 
mixture and'opened at the end of two or three weeks; in each 
case the flesh had the smell and taste of good, pure meat, but it 
was not of the gray color which meat preserved in carbonic acid 
gas gradually takes, but appeared in the interior, as well as on 
the outside, of a bright flesh red color, and on the surface here 
and there, there were white round masses of fungoid growth of 
the size of a 20-pfenning piece, which were removed with the 
slightest rubbing. The flesh lying just below these was found to 
have the same bright red color as that already described. Meat 
which had been for three weeks in such a gas mixture gave a 
broth which, in good taste and freshness, could hardly be dis¬ 
tinguished from freshly made soup; and the boiled meats 
could not be distinguished either in appearance or taste. The 
property of carbonic acid to preserve meat suggests a use for the 
large supplies of this gas evolved from the earth in many locali¬ 
ties. And it is as interesting to determine in how far the gas 
could be of service as an antiseptic during surgical operations. 


128 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


We have already spoken of the employ of chloride of zinc in 
the preservation of bodies in connection with the system of which 
Mr. Sucquet was the founder. In 1840 an English chemist, Win. 
Burnett, patented a new antiseptic fluid for the preservation of 
animal and vegetable substances. In the solution, which is com¬ 
posed of chloride of zinc 15 ounces, distilled water 1^ gallons, 
the substances to be preserved are immersed for two or three 
days, and then left to dry by the action of the atmosphere. 

The salts of iron, especially the persulphate of iron, have been 
ranked among the best anti-putrids. 

Dr. Dusourd has accomplished the perfect preservation of 
'animal substances by their complete saturation with a ferrugin¬ 
ous syrup, of which he is the inventor. He has even proposed 
it, as a certain and cheap means of embalming bodies. 

Sulphate of alumina is frequently employed for the preserva¬ 
tion of bodies; but this salt being always acid, Dr. Homolle sat¬ 
urates its solution with oxide of zinc and thus obtains a com¬ 
pound forming a sulphate of zinc and alumina , which is em¬ 
ployed with advantage for the purpose named. 

Acids sometimes forms the basis of antiputrid compounds, for 
instance, it is admitted that acetic acid weakened (vinegar) has 
been for a long time an agent of preservation of alimentary ani¬ 
mal substances. 

The Alkalies also, under certain peculiar conditions, are useful 
in transforming the fat of animal substances into soap, and thus 
facilitate their desiccation. The use of natron (carbonate of 
soda) anterior to that of asphaltum, in embalming, as practiced 
by the Guanches and Egyptians, must certainly bave been em¬ 
ployed for no other object. 

Another embalming process, patented in New Jersey in 1880, 
consisted in removing the brains and intestines, filling the cavi¬ 
ties with cotton, saturated with a compound of saltpetre, sulphu¬ 
rous acid gas and water, then closing the cavities, subjecting the 
body to the action of sulphurous acid gas, and finally steeping 
the body in said compound. 

The German process of preservation, especially that of the cel¬ 
ebrated Dr. Wickersheimer, which is very good, contains as fol¬ 
lows: 3,000 grammes of boiling distilled water, 100 grammes 
alum, 25 grammes table salt, 12 grammes saltpetre, 60 grammes 
sulphate of potash, and 20 grammes arsenious acid, mixed to- 


129 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

gether while boiling; this solution is cooled off and filtered. To 

ten liters of that solution add four liters of glycerine, and one 
hter of methylalcohol. Also another solution bv the same gen¬ 
tleman : Borax, 100 parts; sulphate of potassium, If) parts ,• 
sodium chloride, 50 parts; nitrate of potassium, 30 parts’ car¬ 
bonate of potassium, 92 parts; arsenious acid, 20 parts; gly¬ 
cerine, 3,000 parts; methylalcohol, 500 parts; and distilled water, 
6,200 parts. 

WICHERSHEIMER’s PRESERVING FLUID. 

The following is said to be the formulae now adopted by prom¬ 
inent manufacturers in Berlin for this liquid, according as it is 
to be used for injecting or immersing bodies: 


Arsenious acid. 

For Injecting. 

For Immersing. 

12 grammes. 

Sodium chloride. 

... 80 

i 

o 

Potassium sulphate .... 

...200 

150 

Potassium nitrate . 

... 25 

18 

Potassium carbonate... 

... 10 

15 

Water . 


10 liters. 

Glycerine . 

... 4 “ 

4 “ 

Wood naphtha. 


| liter. 


Hager suggests the following as a substitute for Wickersheirn- 
er’s preparation: 

Salicylic acid . 4 drachms. 

Boracic acid.... 5 “ 

Potassium carbonate. 1 drachm. 

Dissolved in hot water.12^ ounces. 

Glycerine. 5 “ 

Then add: 

Oil cinnamon, oil cloves, each three drachms, 

dissolved in alcohol.12^ ounces. 

The latter liuid is not poisonous, and possesses the desirable 
property of acting as an antiseptic, and is possessed of a pleasant 
odor. The borosalicylate may be used in connection with other 
solvents if desired. 

The following two modifications of the fluid are now in use, 
the former for injections and the latter for steeping objects to be 
preserved: 


9 
















130 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


Arsenious acid. 16 grammes. 

Sodium chloride. SO “ 

Potassium sulphate.200 “ 

Potassium nitrate. 25 “ 

Potassium carbonate. 20 

Water. 10 liters. 

Glycerine. 4 “ 

Common methylic alcohol $ liter. 


12 grammes. 
60 
150 
18 
15 

10 liters. 


4 “ 

| liter. 


The celebrated Dr. Pousino, of Macao, used the following solu¬ 
tion for embalming bodies: Boil in 10 gallons of distilled water, 

1 pound alum, 8 ounces of common salt, 10 ounces of saltpetre, 
18 ounces nitrate of potash, 8 ounces of white arsenic, 2 ounces 
chloride of zinc, 8 ounces corrosive sublimate, 8 ounces camphor, 

2 gallons glycerine and 1\ gallons alcohol. That same gentle¬ 
man recommends also a solution of alum, tannic acid and corro¬ 
sive sublimate for external submersion of the body. 


The dead bodies of human beings by the above processes are 
claimed to fully retain their form, color and flexibility. Even 
after a period of } 7 ears such bodies may be dissected for purposes 
of science and medical jurisprudence. Deca}' and the offensive 
smell of decay are completely prevented. Preparations made of 
the several parts, such as natural skeletons, lungs, etc., retain 
their softness and pliability. In Pittsburgh, Pa., a solution of one 
pound of arsmite of soda in one gallon of water has been used 
with perfect success for preserving bodies; injected in the 
arteries. 

The different modes of preservation which have successively 
been presented to the reader, are all well adapted to the preven¬ 
tion of putrid decay of animal substances; but, as Decanu re¬ 
marks, these means, besides being more or less expensive, neces¬ 
sitating more or less time in their execution, etc., they cannot be 
applied with equal success in the preservation of all of the ani¬ 
mal substances. We will here, for the benefit of our profession¬ 
als who maj r desire to thoroughly understand the qualities and 
specific properties of the chemicals they are using, give a state¬ 
ment of their particular effects upon the various parts of the 
organism : 


Tasmin , or tannic acid, preserves admirably the skin; it does 
not seem to have an effect on muscular tissue. 









TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


131 

Concentrated alcohol contracts those parts which are essen¬ 
tially cartilaginous,—therefore the necessity to use first weak, 
and afterwards to replace it with strong alcohol to prevent their 
shrinking and difformation. It is said that a slight addition of 
ammonia mitigates this baneful effect of alcohol, but still it will 
destroy in a short time the natural color of animal' matter. 
Again, an addition of chlorydric acid may obviate this inconven¬ 
ience, but it may change a great deal the appearance of the body. 

Bichloride of mercury causes the tissues to skrink and harden 
and gives them a brown tinge, except the muscles, which are 
whitened thereby. It is an excellent preservative when it is not 
a matter of importance to keep the natural aspect of the speci¬ 
mens; it becomes, therefore, almost useless when these prepara¬ 
tions are to retain their natural integrity. 

Alum is a good agent of preservation for the membraneous 
parts of the body, but it deposits sediments which tend to the 
discoloration of the parts effected. 

Persulphate of iron , according to the statement of several 
English writers, attacks the bones. 

The chloride of zinc , which decomposes the calcareous matter 
of the bones, is only useful in the preservation of the fibrinous 
and cartilaginous parts. 

Acids in general are good preservatives of matters containing 
fat, but they corrode tissues and alter their color; also destroy¬ 
ing the calcareous parts of the bones. 

The alkalies are, properly speaking, but preparatory means of 
preservation, having no specific properties as direct agents. 

Essential oils are good agents of preservation, but they dis¬ 
solve the fatty parts, which may be essential to preserve; they 
are not, therefore, to be employed when this particular action is 
to be avoided. 

ANTISEPTIC SUBSTANCES. 

Miquel has reccntty published a memoir on antiseptic sub¬ 
stances and their action, and his results will be studied with in¬ 
terest. Antiseptic bodies are roughly classified as follows: 

1st class.—“Generally antiseptic” bodies, of which from 001 
gramme to 0T0 gramme suffices to. preserve one liter of broth 
from putrefaction. This class includes peroxide of hydrogen 
and bichloride of mercury. 2d class.—“Very powerful antisep¬ 
tics,” or bodies of which from 0T0 gramme to TO gramme is re- 


132 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


quircd to preserve one liter of broth. Iodine, chloride of gold, 
tetrachloride of platinum, hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, and bro¬ 
mine come under this heading. 3d class.—“ Powerful antisep¬ 
tics,” of which from 10 to 5-0 grammes are required. Chloro¬ 
form, potassium bichromate, ammonia, thymol, phenol, perman¬ 
ganate of potassium, nitrate of lead, alum. 4th class.—“Moder¬ 
ately antiseptic” bodies, from 5 to 20 grammes being required. 
Hyd robromate of quinine, white arsenic, sulphate of strychnia, 
boric acid, arsenite of soda, hydrate of chloral, salicylate of soda, 
caustic soda. 5th class.—“Slightly antiseptic substances,” from 
20 to 100 grammes being required to preserve the liter of broth. 
Borate of soda, hydrochlorate of morphia, alcohol. Gtli class, or 
“ Very slightly antiseptic substances,” includes those bodies of 
which from 100 grammes to 300 grammes are required; and un¬ 
der this heading M. Miquel mentions iodide of potassium, com¬ 
mon salt, glycerine, ammonium sulphate, and sodium hyposul¬ 
phite. Substances, such as sugar, which must be present in a 
much larger proportion in order to exercise a preservative action, 
are placed outside the category of antiseptics. 

Bacterial germs and adult bacteria were added to broth, and it 
was found by experiment that the following quantities of the 
various antiseptic substances added to one liter served to pre¬ 
vent the rejuvenescence of the bacterial organisms. 

Class 1, 


Peroxide of hydrogen. 0-5 gramme. 

Bichloride of mercury. 0*7 “ 

Class 2, 

Iodine.0*25 gramme. 

Chloride of gold.0-25 “ 

' Tetrachloride of platinum .0 30 “ 

Hydrocyanic acid.0-40 “ 

Bromine.0G0 “ 


Class S. 


Chloroform.1-0 to 

Patassium bichromate. 

Ammonia... 

Thymol. 

Phenol.*... 

Permanganate of potassium . 

Nitrate of lead. 

Alum. 


2- 0 grammes. 
1-2 

1- 4 “ 

2 - 0 

3- 2 
3-5 

3- 6 

4- 5 “ 

















TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


133 


Class f 

Hydrobromate of quinine. 5 5 grammes. 

White arsenic . G O “ 

Sulphate of strychnia. 7 0 “ 

Boric acid. 7-5 “ 

Arsenite of sodium. 9 0 “ 

Hydrate of chloral. 9-3 “ 

Salicylate of soda.10 0 “ 

Caustic soda . 18 0 “ 

Class 5. 

Borate of soda.70 0 grammes. 

Hydrochlorate of morphia.75 6 “ 

Alcohol.95 0 “ 

Class 6. 

Iodide of potassium.150 0 grammes. 

Common salt...165-0 “ 

Glycerine.225 0 *• 

Sulphate of ammonia.250-0 “ 

Hyposulphite of soda.275 0 “ 


Some sodium salts—as, for example, the sulphate—are remark¬ 
ably inefficient, a dose of 500 grammes being insufficient to pre¬ 
vent the germination of the bacteria. It may, perhaps, be fairly 
assumed that the broth fairly corresponds with a weak gelatin¬ 
ous solution as regards its capability of supporting bacterial life. 

Action of Borax on the . Animal Organism .—Animalcules 
placed in a drop of water, to which is added a concentrated solu¬ 
tion of borax, have their movements arrested and die, while the 
sarcode of the infusoria coagulates. 

The larva of frogs, rendered transparent by being kept in pro¬ 
longed obscurity, present convulsive contraction of the muscular 
fibres of the tail when placed in a solution of borax, and the cir¬ 
culation so easy to observe in these animals is lessened little by 
little, and the plasma of the blood coagulates, killing the animal 
in less than an hour. 

A pound of beef placed in a concentrated solution of borax in 
an hermetically-sealed tin box, gave off a disagreeable odor, 
which had nothing in common with that of putrefaction. After 
more than a year and a half, notwithstanding the heat of the 
summers of 1873 and 1874, this meat had not the least odor of 
putrefaction, and appeared like fresh meat. This same meat ex¬ 
posed to the air did not putrefy. 


















134 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

These same experiments repeated with other meats gave simi¬ 
lar results. The sui generis odor possessed by meat which has 
been preserved for a certain length of time in a borax solution 
seems due to the decomposition of material resulting from the 
metamorphoses of substances composing the muscular fibre or 
intermuscular plasma. 

A concentrated solution of borax can be utilized for the pres¬ 
ervation of anatomical preparations: a great economy over the 
use of alcohol would result from its employment. 

EMBALMING BODIES. 

The board generally employed to lay the body on, while the 
operation of embalming is being performed, resembles an ordin¬ 
ary cooling board, with an adjustable head rest; it is also pro¬ 
vided with a rim extending all around, and raised about an inch 
above the level of the board; this rim stops at the foot, where 
the board remains open in all its width. There are also longitu¬ 
dinal grooves running the full length of the board. The useful¬ 
ness of this arrangement is obvious, as the liquids which are 
used during the washing and embalming of the body run down 
the grooves—the board being raised at the head, about one foot 
during the operation—and can easily be collected in a pail placed 
under the foot of the board. This will do away with soiling the 
floor or carpet, as is often the case with the common board in 
use. The rim around the board will also prevent any liquid from 
dripping over the sides, and will save a great deal of annoyance 
and trouble. 

The greatest of precaution must be used by the operator; all 
useless and unnecessary talk must be avoided while at work; the 
mind must be concentrated upon the work in hand. The knives, 
needles and other instruments must be carefully laid away on a 
stand within easy reach of the operator, and not be left lying 
about the board, under sponges, towels, etc.; these might be 
grasped thoughtlessly, and in doing so a gash might be inflicted 
which, if not fatal, would certainly prove very serious. 

Before commencing the operation, and after the body has been 
thoroughly cleansed with soap and water, let the operator anoint 
and rub his hands with either lard or. sweet oil; not so much so 
as to soil any article used, but let a vigorous rubbing force the 
oil into the pores of the skin, until the hands are almost dry. 

The eyes and mouth being carefully closed by the usual means, 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


135 


let the body be well saturated with the alum or bleaching solution 
as mentioned, in the chapter of preserving dead bodies. 

A cloth moistened with this solution may be laid on the face, 
and remain while the operation is being performed. The solu¬ 
tion should not be wiped off, but it should be allowed to dry on 
the body; the water will evaporate and leave behind it, a thin 
coating of the salts, which, by penetrating the pores of the skin, 
will render it imputresc-ible. 

Next, an incision about floe or six inches in length is cut trans¬ 
versely from right to left in the abdominal region , over the 
stomach , about one inch in a line below the curvature of the 
lower ribs. Through this opening is revealed the stomach on the 
right, the liver and gall-bladder on the left, the transverse arch 
of the colon in front, and below, the smaller intestines . 

If the stomach is distended with food or gas, it must in all 
cases be emptied of its contents and injected- For this purpose, 
puncture the walls of the stomach on the side exposed to view, and 
passing the left hand gently between that organ and the ribs, 
press down, so as to force the contents out and through the 
opening made. Then after the stomach is completely emptied, 
inject the embalming fluid. 

The small intestines must then be gently and carefully drawn 
out, and allowed to lay on the right side of the abdomen; this 
will reveal in the abdominal region a cavity, which may, or may 
not be filled with serum, according to circumstances. At any 
rate, should there be any liquid, it must be carefully pumped out, 
or sponged off until perfectly dry. 

The cavity is then to be sprinkled heavily with tannic acid . 
The small intestines must then and before being replaced, be 
next attended to. If inflated with nothing but gas, a simple 
puncture at different points, so as to favor the escape of the gas, 
and a moderate injection through the aperture, will suffice. 

If however, the intestine should be found congested with blood 
or some other substance, the contents must be emptied by the 
following method: Seize firmly, between the two fore fingers of 
the left hand the intestine, at the lowest point you can reach, 
and with the right hand draw the intestine through the fingers 
of the left; this will have the effect of forcing the contents of 
the intestine forward in front of the fingers of the left hand. 
After the matter has so accumulated that the progress is im- 


136 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


peded, the intestine must be cut , the matter extracted, the part 
which has thus been emptied, injected with the embalming fluid 
and then tied up. This operation must be repeated, until the 
whole of the intestines, small and large, have been emptied and 
injected, and then the whole is to be replaced into the cavity. 

About four ounces of embalming fluid must be poured over the 
intestines, and the wound neatly sewed together. 

It may be found necessary before closing the opening, to lay a 
thickness of cotton batting over the bowels and under the walls 
of the abdomen. 

Should the lungs be congested with blood, they must be emptied. 
This object may be attained by pressing upon the lower 
part of the thorax, which will have the effect of forcing the blood 
out through the nostrils and mouth. The utmost caution must 
be used in perforating the diaphragm, as some of the arteries 
might be wounded, by a careless use of the knife. 

The above operation may be performed, before closing the 
wound in the abdomen, or replacing the intestine into the cavity, 
as it will then leave more room to collect the fluid which may 
escape lrom the lungs. 

The lungs should in all cases be well injected either through 
the trachea, or by the process given above. The air passages 
must be carefully stopped with cotton. The mouth being closed, 
the nostrils are about the only air passages which require the at¬ 
tention of the operator. 

The eyes after a few days, are liable to sink in the sockets, 
which gives the body an unnatural appearance. Mr. John C. 
Rulon of Philadelphia, Pa., has invented a wax shell, which after 
being introduced under the eye-lids prevents the sinking of the 
eyes. 

The arterial system is to be injected, and next requires atten¬ 
tion. Before commencing to inject the arteries, the jugular vein 
on the left side of the neck must be punctured so as to allow the 
blood to escape. In some subjects the flow of blood will be very 
copious, in which instance the jugular veins must be opened on 
both sides of the neck; at other times the flow of blood will be 
very limited, and even the opening of the vein has sometimes 
been found quite unnecessary. 

The femoral artery is the vessel generally chosen for inject¬ 
ing, at a point below the arch, about eight inches from and be- 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


137 


low pouparts ligament. After the artery has been raised, a small 
incision is punctured into the coat of the artery, large enough 
to admit the nozzle of the injector, and the canula is carefully 
pushed upwards into it as far as its length will allow; the artery 
is then safely and firmly fastened around it, and everything is 
then ready for injecting. 

On the mode of injecting depends , in a great measure, the suc¬ 
cess of the operation. With some of the instruments now em¬ 
ployed, the pressure of the injecting fluid is so strong and sudden 
as in many instances, to rupture the walls of the arteries at some 
weak point, and fill the cavities of the thorax and abdomen; 
sometimes even the liquid has been forced in, with such force, 
and in such quantities, as to burst the arteries, and, after filling 
the chest, to pour out in a stream from the mouth and nostrils. 

In the above instances, it stands to reason, that neither the ar¬ 
terial nor venous systems have been properly injected. 

The injection should be performed in a slow , regular manner. 
After a quart of the fluid has been injected; the operation should 
be suspended for about ten minutes, after which it should be re¬ 
newed in the same manner, until about a gallon, or a gallon and 
a half have been injected. Sometimes the quantity injected need 
not be so great; this depends entirely on the build of the dead 
body; in the case of a person much emaciated by long illness, 
use about half that quantity; or if the subject be a child, less still 
is required. 

The jugular veins must be kept open so long as the Jlow of 
blood continues, but they must be closed as soon as the embalm¬ 
ing fluid makes its appearance. The best manner of closing the 
veins is, by introducing into the jugulars a small pad of cotton, 
and neatly sewing up the opening. 

It should be remembered that the cloth moistened with the 
solution for the face should be kept on, well saturated, while this 
operation is being performed, and even for a few hours after the 
body has been dressed. 

A body prepared in this manner has been kept, in a wooden 
coffin, in a dark and moderately cool place, for nine months, with¬ 
out any perceptible change. After that time the shrinking of 
the tissues took place, and the body was slowly drying up, and 
being desiccated without in the least decaying or putrefying. 

It will seem, that even after the arterial and venous systems 


138 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


have been properly injected, there still remains a prolific source 
of putrefaction in the liquids contained in the intestines, and the 
thoracic viscera; for instance, the fecal matter contained in the 
intestines, and the undigested food in the stomach at the time of 
death, must all be evacuated, and the organs containing them 
properly cleaned and injected, and unless this be done, fermen¬ 
tation will set in, and be followed by rapid decay of the surround¬ 
ing tissues. It is true the arteries and veins extend their 
branches to all parts, and to eveiy organ in the body, but it is 
also an undeniable fact, that the contents of those organs which 
are prone to putrefy will carry the infection to the vessels con- 
taing them. The stomach and bowels are emptied of their con¬ 
tents for the mere reason that these same contents are always 
undergoing a process of fermentation, which will generate into 
rapid decay and the emission of noxious gases. 

In certain cases of consumption, the lungs are gangrenous and 
decayed long before death takes place; and it will then be found 
necessary to introduce through the trachea some antiseptic fluid 
which will stop the progress of decay. 

Besides the knowledge of the information given, it will enable 
the embalmer to follow the workings of the embalming process 
in all its details, and enable him to discover the causes of failure 
in certain cases; also to use the proper means in the achieve¬ 
ment of success. 

ANOTHER PROCESS OF EMBALMING. 

The following process is more laborious, and requires more 
time than the one already given, but at the same time, it is more 
complete and lasting, and when the operation is skilfully and 
properly performed, the body may be said, to be embalmed for an 
indefinite period of time. But to carry out this process to a suc¬ 
cessful issue, it will be found strictly necessary to study well, 
and bear in mind, all the details of the operation. 

It would be impossible to omit any part of the process and still 
expect the same results, for, after repeated experiments and trials 
under favorable and adverse circumstances, the results have al¬ 
ways proved to be the same. Still this process is regulated by 
the same laws, and governed by the same conditions which effect 
a body under all circumstances. An explanation of these condi¬ 
tions has already been given, and it will be found that a thorough 
knowledge of these will materially assist the operator in his work. 


TREATISE ON EMEaLMINGL 


139 


Let us suppose, for one moment, that a man entirely unacquaint¬ 
ed with the causes which may effect the morbid conditions of 
the veins and arteries, goes recklessly on, and commences to in¬ 
ject some part of the circulating system; if that system is in a 
normal condition, the injection will prove successful; if not, the 
worst consequences may follow. How is he then to remedy his 
mistake ? His very limited knowledge, if he has any, will be of 
no avail to him. It is in the lack of a sufficient understanding 
of the human organism that the cause of many failures is to be 
found. When the proper antiseptics are used, the fault does not 
lie in their inefficiency, but in the manner in which they have 
been employed. 

It is unncessary to repeat here, what we have before stated, 
that in order to understand thoroughly the process of embalming, 
the operator must make himself familiar with the explanations 
already given, and also with those, which shall be found here¬ 
after. 

It will be seen in the following pages that the mode of treat¬ 
ment to which the body is subjected in this process, is entirely 
different from that which has already been given. 

The completeness of this process will be readily understood 
after a careful study of its details, and if strictly followed in 
every particular will be found not only satisfactory in its results, 
but also lasting for an indefinite period of time. 

It is well enough to say here, that a metallic casket is not re¬ 
quired to assist in keeping the body after it has been treated ac¬ 
cording to the following method. Quite the reverse, a wooden 
casket will answer the purpose much better, as the body is ren¬ 
dered perfectly inaccessible to the attacks of the ambient atmos¬ 
phere by the external covering which encases the body in its 
transparent and elastic coating, impervious alike to air and 
moisture. 

The body should be placed upon a table about four feet high, 
and elevated nearly six inches at the head. It must be here 
borne in mind that, to perform the following operation success¬ 
fully, the operator should be left alone to his work, in a room 
free from intrusion, where idle questioning from standers by, or 
the talk of the usual routine of business, will not disturb him. 
And as it may require some time to complete the work, it were 
better that the remains were brought to the undertaker’s estab- 


140 


TllEATISE ON EMBALMING. 


lishment, where there is generally, or ought to be, a room set 
apart for this branch of the business. 

The body is first washed clean with soap and tepid water, ^o 
as to remove every particle of fat or greasy substance, which 
might obstruct the pores of the skin, and thereby prevent the 
salts contained in the bleaching lotion to penetrate the tissues and 
produce the desired effect. The body must then be thoroughly 
dried by means of clean towels, and be well saturated with the 
above lotion. 

The body is to be kept constantly moist with the aforesaid, and 
as soon as evaporation has dried up the surface ol the skin, a 
new application of the solution becomes necessary, in fact, the 
process should come as near complete immersion as possible. 
The eyes must be well closed. To avoid the sinking, which will 
disfigure the best prepared corpse, we use now wax shells to be 
inserted under the eyelids to keep them in place, the outside of 
the shell must be coated with white gum shellac, dissolved in al¬ 
cohol. After the insertion of the shells thus coated, the lid3 are 
brought together, and held in place by the fingers. Shellac dries 
quick and in about five minutes time it will be found that the 
gum has acquired enough consistency to hold the lids together. 
As a matter of course, it will get harder in time, and prevent the 
lids from starting apart. 

The operator will then cut a straight line through the skin 
with a scalpel, the line to extend from the superior part of the 
sternum, to the umbilical region. Another incision of the skin 
is to be made at right angles from the first, about six inches in 
length, and one inch below the lower bend of the last rib. 

Then with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, seize the 
skin firmly at a point where the two lines intersect each other, 
and with the scalpel held in the right hand, carefully separate 
the skin from the fascia underneath. This operation is repeated 
on the four sides, and the flaps of the skin turned over the sides 
of the body. This will leave exposed to view a diamond shaped 
opening of the epidermis, with its apex reaching above, to the 
superior portions of the sternum, and the lowest angle reaching 
to within two inches of the naval; the two lateral points extend 
on both sides of the body, from the region of the stomach to the 
liver, and almost immediately above the transverse arch of the 
colon. 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


141 


To cut through the abdominal fascia, carefully puncture it 
above the stomach, so the opening will be large enough to admit 
the forefinger of the right hand being introduced through the 
opening; then holding the scalpel with its edge upward, the back 
resting along the extended forefinger, introduce both into the 
opening and cut from downward upward into the fascia of the 
abdomen in a straight line across from the stomach to the liver 
in a similar way to that above described for cutting through the 
skin. This last incision is to follow ihe same course as the one 
cut in the epidermis, and will extend from one to the other lat¬ 
eral angle of the diamond shaped opening in the skin. This 
opening will reveal the stomach on the left, the liver on the right, 
and the transverse arch of the colon immediately beneath, 

Then another cleaving of the fascia is to be performed, down¬ 
wards and in a similar manner, from the middle to the transverse 
opening, to within two inches of the naval; this last opening ex¬ 
poses the small intestines. 

The reason why the cutting of the fascia of the abdomen should 
be performed in this manner, that is, with the scalpel being held 
edge upward along the extended forefinger is obvious; the fore¬ 
finger in this case acts as a guide to the scalpel in dividing the 
tissues, and also protects the.viscera from being wounded by the 
sharp point of the knife. 

The abdominal viscera being thus exposed, the lungs, heart 
and other parts of the thoracic viscera must also be uncovered. 
For this purpose, and with the cartilage knife separate the ribs 
from the sternum about two inches on either side of the latter, 
commencing from the second rib down to the last one, and ex¬ 
tending to the transverse opening made in the abdomen; it will 
be found that the ribs at that distance from the sternum are at¬ 
tached to it by a cartilage, which it is very easy to cut in chil¬ 
dren, harder in adults, and it may sometimes be indispensable to 
use a saw on old persons. This cutting through the ribs must 
be carefully performed, for fear of wounding some of the organs 
which lie immediately beneath and against the ribs. 

The sternum being thus freed from the ribs, it can be turned 
back over and against the face, and will reveal through the open¬ 
ing thus made, the lungs, the heart, the arch of the aorta, etc. 

The operator should use extreme caution, whilst performing 
this operation, as the jagged and sharp edges of the ribs might 


142 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


cut through the skin and inflict a wound, should the hand be 
suddenly brought in contact with them. It is also necessary to 
enjoin again, forsibty the recommendation made before, of keep¬ 
ing the body well saturated with the lotion while the work is 
progressing. 

The bowels must then be carefully displaced, and all fluid and 
serum found between or under the intestines be completely 
sponged out; the intestines must also be emptied of their con¬ 
tents by the process which has already been given in the first 
method of embalming; also the stomach, the gall bladder, all the 
organs in fact, which contain foreign elements prone to putrefy. 
The bladder can be emptied of the urine by means of a catheter, 
introduced into the urinary canal. 

All of the organs which shall have been emptied of their con¬ 
tents, as also the intestines and the bladder, must be injected 
with the embalming fluid. 

As to puncturing the different organs for the purpose of empty¬ 
ing their contents, the manner for doing so, has clearly been 
given in the former process for embalming bodies, but great care 
must always be used, so as not to perforate any of the vessels of 
the circulatory system. 

The next step is to inject the arterial system. For this pur¬ 
pose a different point for injecting the system is selected from 
the one pointed out in the former process. By removing the 
small intestines out, and on the right side of the body the de¬ 
scending branch of the aorta is exposed to view. In its course 
downward, the aorta lies on the vertebral column to the left of 
the middle line, and terminates on the fourth lumbar vertebra, 
by dividing into the two common iliac arteries. The descending 
branch of the aorta is then punctured so as to admit the nozzle 
of the injector; this is introduced into the opening in an upward 
direction, and the walls of the artery are then tied firmly, but 
not so, as to cut through, around the nozzle. After the artery 
has been thus prepared, and before injecting, the vena cava must 
be perforated at a point corresponding with the incision prac¬ 
ticed in the descending portion of the aorta where the nozzle of 
the injector is inserted. 

The inferior vena cava ascends along the front of the vertebral 
column , and to the right of the abdominal aorta. The object of 
severing this vein is, to give the blood in the upper portions of 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


143 


the body a means of escape, as the fluid is forced through and up 
the arteries of that part, and returning through the veins forces 
the blood through the opening. 

After the upper portion ot the body has been injected with 
about half a gallon of the embalming fluid, the nozzle of the in¬ 
jector must be reversed and the lower parts injected in a similar 
manner with about the same amount of fluid; the injection must 
then be stopped for the space of about three hours, and all the 
blood which may have escaped from the opening made in the 
vena cava into the cavity of the intestines must be sponged out, 
as it fills up the space left. 

The mode of injecting is also of extreme importance. The in¬ 
jection should be done slowly and steadily, as a strong, sudden 
forcing up of the liquid into the arteries might occasion a rup¬ 
ture of their walls should some point be weakened from causes 
arising from previous sickness, or from lesions as described in a 
previous chapter. 

The injection may then be renewed, and more liquid be inject¬ 
ed, until a sufficient quantity has been used. As there are no 
rules laid down for the amount of liquid to be injected, it is left 
altogether to the discrimination and good judgement of the 
operator. 

The bodies of children and old persons will require less liquid 
than adults up to the age oi forty five. The bodies of persons 
killed by accident or some sudden cause, will require a larger 
amount of liquid, than those of persons who are emaciated by 
long illness, as for instance consumption. 

After the arterial and venous system have been thus com¬ 
pletely injected, the intestines must be replaced in the abdom¬ 
inal cavity. 

The brains must next be removed, and this operation is one, 
which requires extreme caution, as will be seen by the following 
explanation of the process: 

The body is turned on the right side and by means of a tre¬ 
phine, a round hole is cut into the back of the skull, about two 
inches above the cerebellum; the piece of bone thus taken out is 
preserved,-so as to be replaced into the opening after the opera¬ 
tion is finished. Previous to cutting through the skull a small 
incision in the shape of a cross, about two inches in length each 
way must be cut into the skin. The object of this is, to leave 


144 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


the bone denuded, after the skin has been detached from the 
bone, and also to bring the parts together by sewing after the 
brain has been removed. 

Through the opening thus made in the skull, the brain, or the 
portion of it, which can be reached, is easily removed by means 
of a small slender spoon with a long handle, made for this pur¬ 
pose. The cavity thus made in the head is to be tilled with the 
following: 

Take two gallons or more of water and saturate with alum , as 
much as it will dissolve ; next mix with plaster of paris to the 
consistency of nery thin paste , and fill the cavity of the brain; 
some cotton may then be introduced to keep the mixture inside; 
the round piece of bone cut from the skull is then replaced, the 
flaps of the cut in the skin brought together, and neatly sewed 
up. If this operation is carefully performed, the cuts thus made 
can not be perceived under the hair. 

Great caution should be exercised, while removing the brain, 
in not wounding any of the veins and arteries which are inside 
that part of the skull, and with a little care, this can be easily 
avoided. 

The body is then turned again on the back, in the former po¬ 
sition and all the cavities in the thorax and the abdomen, be¬ 
tween and under the intestines, tile liver, the lungs and the heart, 
must be well cleaned and dried with a sponge of all liquid or 
serum that might be found. Pulverize some tannic acid into 
fine powder, and sprinkle heavily around and between the organs 
of the thorax and abdomen; the sternum is then replaced over 
the thoracic opening, the flaps of the skin temporarily brought 
back over the abdomen, and the body being enveloped in a sheet 
or some linen cloth, well saturated with the lotion for the face. 
The face, hands, feet, in fact every inch of the surface of the 
body, above and under, is to be covered with the cloth, tightly 
wrapped around it, and well saturated as above directed. 

The body must be kept in this condition for about twelve 
hours, when the cloth is to be removed; the sternum is then 
raised again and the skin over the abdomen thrown back, the 
above named mixture of alum, etc., is then poured over the whole 
of the thoracic and abdominal viscera, being careful to fill com¬ 
pletely all the interstices existing between and under the differ 
ent organs and the intestines. This composition, or cement, 


145 


> 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

must be brought up to a level with the ribs in the thorax, and 
cover the viscera in the abdomen; after the cement is set or 
nearly so, sprinkle a plentiful quantity of powdered tannic acid 
on the top of it. 

Then bring the sternum down to its proper place between the 
ribs, and also the internal fascia of the abdomen over the viscera; 
and last, the flaps of the skin are brought together and neatly 
sewed up, taking a stitch alternately under and above the skin. 
Should the mouth have a tendency to remain open, or the lips 
too far apart, fill the inside of the mouth between the cheeks and 
gums with cotton, well saturated with the fluid and use the above 
named cement as paste; it will give the body an appearance 
more natural and less emaciated. This rule ought to be applied 
in all cases: the friends and mourners of the family will always 
appreciate anything of the kind, which tends to beautify the 
remains and divest death of its hideousness. 

The nostrils must also be filled with the same composition, 
after which, place some cotton wads saturated with embalming 
fluid, high up, so it can not be seen from outside. 

After the body has been so far prepared, it remains to encase 
it into a transparent and elastic covering, which will prevent the 
attacks from the atmosphere, and at the same time, render the 
body impervious to moisture. For this purpose, procure some 
fresh Canada balsam , perfectly colorless ; also a glass jar with 
large mouth; this jar should be large enough to hold twice 
the amount of Canada balsam on hand; bring the jar near the 
fire if it is in winter, and submit the balsam to a gentle heat 
until it is liquified; so soon as the balsam has attained the con¬ 
sistency of thin honey, add to it the same amount of the best 
spirits of turpentine that can be obtained, and stir with a glass 
rod, until the balsam and turpentine have been thoroughly mixed; 
then apply the mixture on the body by means of a camel’s hair 
brush, very wide, in shape to thi.t used for copying letters. 

A single thin layer of this mixture is quite sufficient, and 
should be evenly applied to any part of the body, where the 
growth of hair is not sufficient to exclude the approach of the 
atmosphere. It will require but a very short time for this var¬ 
nish to dry, and then the body will be ready for either burial in 


10 


146 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

a crypt, easy of access, or for transportation to any foreign 
country. 

In the course of time, the organic tissues will dry and desic¬ 
cate; the bony prominent parts of the joints may become more 
angulous, the skin may assume a slightly yellow tinge, but the 
features will alwaj^s be natural and recognizable, the skin will 
never shrivel up and shrink back exposing the teeth, as is gen¬ 
erally the case with the Egyptian mummies, and above all, putre¬ 
faction with all its repulsive hideous accessories will never take 
place, nor will noxious gases or offensive odors be emitted. 

A wooden casket will also be found preferable to a metallic one, 
as the free admission of air will favor the drying up of the tis¬ 
sues and the absorption of whatever little moisture might find its 
way out. 

Embalmers will find this process to be without any exception, 
the best method ever employed; bodies prepared as above, can 
be shipped to the most distant points across the seas, will keep 
well in any climate; or, can be preserved for an indefinite period 
of time in some vault, where the surviving members of the fam¬ 
ily can at any time obtain a vision of the body without having 
their sensibilities shocked by the horrible picture of slowly de¬ 
composing animal matter. 

It must not be forgotten that, if the above process is slow, long 
and tedious, requiring a good deal of labor and delicate handling, 
the results obtained are equally important, and the compensation 
commensurate with the magnitude of the undertaking. 

grannel’s process of embalming with modifications. 

The following process, which has been successfully employed 
in Europe especially in France and Italy for a long time, for em¬ 
balming bodies and for the preservation of anatomical prepara¬ 
tions, is still practiced extensively, owing to the cheapness of the 
materials used, and the simplicity of the modus operandi. 

Lay the body on an inclined board, as described in a former 
chapter, and, after thoroughly cleansing with water and soap, 
saturate well with a concentrated solution of alum ; the body 
should be kept well moistened with the solution in the same 
manner as above described, until the operation is completed. 

Through an opening made in the skin of the abdomen, and 
immediately over the transverse part of the colon; the bowels 
and the stomach will then be revealed, which must be emptied 


147 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 

ot their contents and properly cleansed, and injected with the 
preparation. 

After the contents of the abdomen have thus been treated, the 
whole abdominal viscera is to be heavily sprinkled over, with 
tannic acid, until the acid forms a layer of about one-half inch 
in thickness between the bowels and the skin of the abdomen; 
the flaps ot the skin arc then brought together and neatly sewed 
up. Make an incision on the right basilic vein, and the blood 
in some cases, will issue very freely, and the flow of it must con¬ 
tinue until the embalming fluid makes its appearance. 

To inject the circulatory system, extend the left arm at a right 
angle with the body and open the axillary artery, about three 
inches from the arm pit. The axillary artery is a continuation 
of the sub clavian artery; it passes through the axilla or arm pit 
into the arm, and is called the axillary artery; that part of its 
continuation into the upper arm is called brachial artery, and in 
the fore arm, it divides into the radial and ulnar arteries, which 
are distributed to the hand and fingers. 

Through the opening thus made in the axillary artery, two 
gallons of embalming fluid may be injected, slowly but steady, 
or such quantity as may be found necessary to completely fill the 
arterial and venous systems. 

After the blood has ceased to flow from the opening in the 
basilic vein, the wounds must be sewed up, and the body an- 
nointed with the solution, is left to dry in a cool, well ventilated 
place. 

The surface of the body, as also the face may be mottled in 
some places with white spots, but the skin will soon assume a 
uniform color, and the blotches will disappear. 

After the solution on the body has become sulflciently dry, and 
has penetrated the pores of the skin, the excess of moisture must 
be wiped off, with a clean towel. 

The nostrils should be hermetically sealed, by introducing into 
them some cotton, well saturated with gum shellac dissolved in 
alcohol. 

The eye caps must be introduced under the eyelids as men¬ 
tioned in the former chapter, and the eyes well closed. The 
body is then saturated with a thin coating of turpentine; and 
after the turpentine is dry, the clothing can be put on, and the 
body is then ready for interment. 


148 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


As shown by the proceeding, this process is very simple, and 
has given satisfactory results in all cases, although the amount 
of embalming fluid and the composition thereof vary in all cases, 
according to the temperature of the season and country. 

For the minor parts of this process, as for instance the closing 
of the mouth the reader is referred to previous processes. 

EMBALMING FROCESS OF WORTH AND DURAND. 

This process, often employed in Europe, has given very satis¬ 
factory results, and seems to deserve a good deal of attention. 
The mode of proceeding differs in some particulars, from the 
methods already given; also the preparations used in this pro¬ 
cess are very different from the others, although the principles, 
upon which, it is founded are the same. 

The solution employed as an injecting fluid in this case is as, 
follows; arsenious acid , three ounces; carbonate ‘of soda , four 
ounces; water , three quarts. 

Dissolve in a porcelain vessel the arsenious acid and soda in 
hot water and after solution, let the liquor cool of; then add 
enough water to make up a gallon. In the making and using of 
this preparation, a great amount of care should be exercised, as 
it must be borne in mind, that arsenious acid is a violent poison. 

The stomach is then opened as described in former chapters 
and emptied of its contents: the bowels, also, must be subjected 
to the same process. The trachea is punctured, and the bron¬ 
chial tubes completely filled with the solution through the open¬ 
ing thus made. The stomach and intestines should also be in¬ 
jected with the solution, and also the surrounding parts. 

The right carotid artery is selected as the point of injection, 
instead of the left, for the following reasons: The right common 
carotid artery is shorter than the left; it is also more anterior, 
and in consequence of proceeding from a branch, instead of from 
the main trunk, is larger than its fellow. 

The common carotid artery in the neck is enclosed in a fibrous 
sheath, which also contains the internal jugular vein lying to the 
outer side of the artery, and the pneumogastric nerve, which lies 
beneath and behind both; the sheath rests on the vertebral 
column. To the inner side of the carotid is the trachea and 
larynx; to its outer side, and inclosed in its sheath, the jugular 
vein. It may be inferred from the above, that the jugular vein 
in the neck is in close proximity with the carotid artery, and 


TREATISE ON EMEALMING. 


149 


great care must be exercised in puncturing the artery not to in¬ 
jure the vein lying at its side. 

After the injection has proceeded upwards, until the arteries 
of the head and neck are tilled, a very small puncture may be 
cut into the jugular vein, and the blood allowed to escape at that 
point until the flow decreases, when the vein may be tied up. 

The nozzleof the injector is turned in a downward direction, 
and the injection continued until a sufficient quantity of the 
liquid has been injected. The artery is then tied up, and the 
wound neatly brought together and sewed up. 

Some of the same solution may also be poured around the 
bowels before and after their being replaced in their former po¬ 
sition, and the opening in the abdomen is then closed. 


SHIPPING EMBALMED BODIES TO DISTANT 

COUNTRIES. 


Instances will at times present themselves where the body of 
a person is required to be sent to some distant point; at the 
same time either the family does not feel disposed or able to bear 
the expense of a metallic casket, or they find it more suitable for 
their purpose, or congenial to their taste, to procure a wooden or 
cloth-covered casket. As some lines of railroads will not trans¬ 
port a corpse any distance in anything but a metallic casket, the 
following may be resorted to: 

The body being properly embalmed and placed in the case or 
casket; this is in turn placed, into an outside box lined with 
sheets of zinc securely soldered together; a zinc lid is sealed by 
the same means, and the wooden lid of the box screwed down on 
the top of the whole; thus the casket and body are placed in a 
semi-metallic envelope practically air-tight. 


END PART OF EMBALMING. 


Dr. Wywodzoff, of St. Petersburg, Russia, says: For temporary 
preservation of bodies, the following requisites are necessary: 
The body should remain in a soft and flexible condition for at 
least three months, the tissues shall not change color, the mate- 






150 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


rial should not be injurious to the health of the operator, nor 
spoil the instruments used in the operation, and it must be either 
free from or have an agreeable odor, and be cheap, to fulfill the 
above conditions. The following is recommended by him: Thy- 
molis, 2 scruples; glycerine, 4 pounds; distilled water, 2 pounds. 
This is used in the form of an arterial injection, and therefore 
does not present any difference to the general mode of applica¬ 
tion. 

Mr. Laujorry lately presented a note to the French Academy 
of Sciences, on the antiseptic properties of bichromate of potash. 
Experiments had shown him conclusively that it retarded indefi¬ 
nitely the putrefaction of bodies. His illustration of the process 
was as follows:. The body was deprived, as nearly as possible, of 
all the blood it contained; then the arterial system was filled 
with about seven liters of an aqueous solution of bichromate of 
potash , in the proportion of one to a hundred parts of water.. 
The body was then immersed in a solution of the same sub¬ 
stance, but different in specific proportions, i. e., one part of 
bichromate of potash in two hundred parts of water. After three 
months immersion, the flesh of the body was hardened and 
almost dry. 

The process of Dr. Carra, of Florence, Italy, is as follows: The 
venous system was emptied, and the arterial circulation filled 
with a solution of: Chloride of alumina , 6 pounds; corrosive 
sublimate , 3 ounces; distilled water , 0 liters . The body was 
then immersed in the same solution for sixty days; and at the 
end of that period of time presented the phenomena of petrifac¬ 
tion. 

It is said that the corpse of the great Italian republican, Maz- 
zini, was petrified. Recent travellers say that it proved entirely 
successful, and that the features of the eminent agitator present¬ 
ed no visible alteration, and the expression well preserved, as he 
reposes in his tomb, which is opened to the inspection of visitors. 

In this last instance, there exists but little doubt that the re¬ 
sult thus obtained was due to the employ of those silicates and 
salts of alumina which are always present in abundance in the 
soil where these formations are most commonly found. 

MODIFICATIONS IN THE MODE OF EMBALMING BODIES. 

There are modifications in the processes used for the preserva¬ 
tion of bodies, which are governed by circumstances effecting the 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


151 


different conditions of the body at the time of death. It would 
require the scope of a cyclopedia to give in detail the proportions 
of each constituent in the number of different cases, which may 
come under the notice of the embalmer. 

The mode of operation in all cases may be the same, but the 
nature and quantity of the injection will vary, first, with the 
climatic circumstances of the atmosphere; second, with the cause 
of death; third, with the age of the deceased; fourth, with the 
state of the body after death; fifth, with the length of time 
which has elapsed since death took place. 

It has been demonstrated in a previous chapter that a high 
temperature is conducive to rapid decomposition of organic mat¬ 
ter; also, that a warm, moist atmosphere will operate in the same 
manner. It is, therefore, incumbent upon the operator to guard 
against these two agents of putrefaction, by keeping the bodv in 
a moderate^ cool and well ventilated place, until the work of 
preserving is accomplished; also, to give the antiseptics employ¬ 
ed, time to successful^ destroy and render harmless the danger¬ 
ous effects of the heat. 

It must not be understood b} r the preceding caution that a 
body cannot be embalmed in an ordinary room during the heat 
of summer, but the suggestion herein given is solely for the pur¬ 
pose of facilitating the operation and rendering'the success cer¬ 
tain; besides, as it has been illustrated in some of the processes 
precedingly given, the strength as well as the quantity of the 
injection has been increased when used during the warm season. 

As to the modifications to be observed in the treatment of 
bodies when the cause of death is taken into consideration; it 
has formed the subject of some chapters to show that, in cases 
where death is the result of a certain class of diseases, the body is 
more prone to putrefy than in others; whilst in other cases again 
the body is, to a certain extent, preserved from corruption by the 
agents which have proved fatal to the organism; as, for instance, 
when death has been the result of poisoning, either by alcohol 
or arsenic. 

The age of the person deceased and the condition of the body 
after death as also the length of time elapsed since death took 
place, as effecting the mode of treatment, have all been discussed 
in a former part of this work, and it is not necessary to repeat 
the same over again. 


152 TREATISE ON EMBALMING* 

The important point which we have to press on your mind is 
that circumstances in this case are to be strictly investigated; 
also, that a uniform treatment of all cases, however different the 
circumstances and conditions, will be a failure; and that a thor¬ 
ough knowledge and experience are necessary to achieve satis¬ 
factory results. 

Discrimination and judgment are to be used in every case. 
Some are too ready to condemn a certain process, or to question 
the properties of some antiseptics, because the first trial of either 
has proved an ignominious failure; whereas the real cause of 
all the trouble lies in their ignorance of the laws which govern 
the mode of proceeding, and the use of the chemicals placed at 
their disposition. 

Others, again, are prone to extol the merits of some prepara¬ 
tion, the component parts of which they do not know, but it may 
have done them good service in several instances; and when, 
contrary to their expectations, it fails to answer the purpose, 
they lose faith in it, discard it altogether as worthless, and never 
entertain the idea that an alteration in the qnantity used, or in 
the combination and strength of constituents, is the real source 
of mischief. Hence, it is a fact not to be denied that a diagnosis 
is necessary before the work of embalming be entered into. And 
he who would endeavor to preserve the body of a stout, fleshy 
person by the same means employed in the preserving of a body 
emaciated by long suffering, and under different conditions of 
temperature, might not meet with a success equal to his expec¬ 
tations. 


REVIEW OF THE LESSONS ON EMBALMING. 


BY PROF. W. W. BALL. 

When full of gases, and the flesh puffed, the face blackened 
and other wise distorted, I make an incision and insert a small 
tube into the artery and also the veins of each arm. In this the 
pressure of the gases usually starts the blood. When this does 
not, I connect my pump to assist, by occasional^ injecting some 
suitable fluid. If the face remains black, I make an incision at 
both arms in the (cephalic) vein to remedy the condition of the 
face. In most cases of ordinary character, it will conduct the 




TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 153 

inky fluids out of the veins of the face and head if taken in time, 
before the clot of the blood closes it up. In the same manner I 
operate at each leg, and if the fluids work off readily I await 
them, and next disperse the gases from the stomach and other 
cavities of the abdomen; also the thorax (chest); and the lungs, 
by using a sharp pointed tube which answers for the purpose. 
But a very much better way is to have several trocar points or 
tubes, and insert them in all the cavities, and after the gases are 
all worked out, inject each cavit} 7 , taking care not to make the 
fluids again depress any vessel. 

After injecting the vessels and cavities full, give a little time 
for the flesh to absorb’the fluid and you can thus reach all the 
more remote parts of the system by absorption, as long as the 
flesh is in proper condition and not full of gas, or too rigid, be¬ 
cause sometimes the rigidity will interfere for a time, but this 
will give away soon, when a good solution is used, as it will 
soften the tissues somewhat. 

Sudden changes of the atmosphere, as an approaching thun¬ 
der-shower; will frequently produce a condition which creates a 
spontaneous outburst of decomposition. The atmosphere in this 
change is loaded with the scavenger of the earth (oxygen) which 
unites with the decomposing tissues, and thus generates (bacte¬ 
ria germs.) By the use of ice we freeze the water and juices of 
the flesh, and this only retards putrefaction. By absorbing the 
water in the flesh with chemicals, we form a dense coagulation 
of the albumenoids and take up the juices of the flesh by chemi¬ 
cal affinities. 

Dr} 7 air evaporates those fluids .from the surface of the body 
and thus it retards the process of decomposition by taking the 
moisture from the tissues, and the oxygen of the air cannot take 
action as readily when dry, as when moist and damp. If the air 
is dry and cold, it is much better. When the atmosphere 
is warm and damp, it induces the fermentive process at once, 
and thus the fluids sour, while the pores of the skin dampen and 
form mold spots, by the air’s oxygen. With this, microscopical 
germs and thread-like corpuscles, or bacteria, take hold and soon 
become innumerable and active agents of speedy dissolution. 

The substances of the body that soon become uncontrollable, 
are: The blood, which remains mostly in the flesh, and in the 
veins, and seldom or ever in the arteries, although there is 


154 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


usually some fibrine, while the oily or transparent fluid (serum) 
is taken up by the flesh from the arteries by the capillary attrac¬ 
tion it has for those fluids. (The latter action on the capillaries 
has long been discredited, but none the less we are ready to de¬ 
fend this assertion with substantial evidence.) 

Chemical reagents should readily permeate the tissues from 
external and internal application, without forming too dense a 
coagulation of the albuminoids. The fluid (used for embalming) 
must have veiy powerful affinity for watery fluids, to dry the 
tissues and neutralize the gases, and thus render those fermen- 
tive fluids inactive, and destroy putrid effluvium and bad odors. 

Connecled with the alimentary canal, are several large glands, 
a few of which have already been described. They are soft 
solids of various forms and sizes, and are composed of lobules or 
small divisions, each one of which is supplied with an artery, 
vein and duct. Each of these ducts communicates with the 
principal duct or outlet, which conveys away the product sepa¬ 
rated from the blood by the gland. In microscopic structure a 
gland is made up of very minute cells, which seem to have the 
power of secreting or separating from the blood the particular 
substance which it is the function of the gland to eliminate. 

The peritonoeum covering or external coat ol the intestines, is 
not a little peculiar in its conformation. This, like all serous 
membranes, first completely invests the organs, and then is re¬ 
flected from them so as to make a lining for the whole cavitv. 
Hence the cavity of the abdomen, although a perfectly shut sac, 
may be seen from the fact, that in dropsy of the abdomen, the 
fluid has no means of escape except by absorption or puncture 
from the outside. In the disease commonly known as inflamma¬ 
tion of the bowels, this membrane is the principal seat of the 
difficulty, and the inflammation of this, as well as all other serous 
membranes is attended with acute pain and the progress of the 
disease for better or worse very rapid. The mesentery (mean¬ 
ing the middle of the abdomen) is a fold of serous membrane 
which hangs over the greater portion of the intestines, and is 
thickly inlaid with fat, even in persons of moderate size. The 
point of attachment on the front side of the body is along the 
course of the transverse colon, hanging like a short apron from 
the lowest portion of the waist. After being reflected upon itself, 
it is attached to the posterior walls of the abdomen, near the 


I 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 155 

spinal column. Small bodies called mesenteric glands are also 
found in the fold, which has an important connection with the 
Lacteals; they belong to the class of Lymphatics. The main 
use of the mesentery is to form a cushion of fat in order to pro¬ 
tect the included organs from cold and violence, as well as to 
give them a yielding surface to glide upon during their tortuous 
movements. 

The Lacteals are minute vessels which commence with the 
inner or mucous coat of the intestines, and terminate in the 
thoracic duct. Soon after they leave the intestines, several of 
them unite into one, and pass through small bodies ot about the 
size of peas, called the mesenteric glands. As they emerge from 
these glands, they are fewer in number but larger in size, until 
the} 7 all unite into one tube called the thoracic duct —a little 
larger than a goose quill—at about the point of the last dorsal 
vertebra. The lacteals and the thoracic duct are all made up of 
three coats, and presents a silvery-white appearance from the 
color of the fluid they contain. Their function is to convey the 
chyle or nutrient portion of the food into the blood. 

With persons in good health, there is a larger abundance of 
this fatty tissue and lymphatic fluids, which, with the fluids of 
the blood vessels and the juices of the flesh, constitute the fluid 
constituents, and become the fuel for the fire of dissolution after 
the vitality is extinct. Another agent of putrefaction is the gas¬ 
tric fluid. In life, as soon as the food reaches the stomach, the 
most important part of the process of digestion commences. 
Whenever any solid substance comes in contact with the inner 
or mucous membrane of the stomach, it excites the gastric glands 
to pour out in abundant quantity the gastric fluid. This fluid is 
a transparent liquid of a little greater consistency than water, 
and of a perceptibly acid taste. It possesses the property of coag¬ 
ulating albumen and of separating the whey or serum from the 
milk in a very short time, and is secreted at the rate of seventy 
ounces per day. This property, however, is owing to a peculiar 
organic compound called pepsin , which acts after the manner of a 
ferment at the normal temperature of the human body. The gas¬ 
tric fluid also possesses antiseptic properties, or the power of pre¬ 
venting decay or putrefaction for a long time. These three pro¬ 
perties—the acids, fermentive and antiseptic—are of service in 
the following manner: The acid assists in the solution of the dif- 


156 


TREATISE ON EMBALMING. 


ferent materials in the stomach. The pepsin , which constitutes 
two-thirds of the solid materials of the gastric juice, does its office 
by establishing the lactic fermentation, such as is seen in the 
changes through which milk passes in hot weather. The anti¬ 
septic properties are important in order to prevent putrefaction, 
which would be so liable to be set up among organic substances 
in such a condition, and at such an elevated temperature as the 
stomach usually possesses. 

In this way, we might continue to define other substances of 
organic life within the human organism, which in health gives 
vigor and life, and in death are found to baffle the masters of our 
art. When the public have been educated to commit their dead 
to competent hands, in a manner that is necessary for their pres¬ 
ervation, then it will soon be proven by our profession that it is 
no longer necessary to search Egyptian catacombs for what is 
termed as the lost art, notwithstanding the unfavorable condition 
of the elements in nature, which have to be combatted or over-, 
come by a remedy to ward off the scavenger oxygen. 


FINIS. 


TREATISE 


ON 


EMBALMING 


INCLUDING 

A FULL AND CONCISE DESCRIPTION OF THE METHODS TO 
BE EMPLOYED FOR THE PRESERVATION OF THE 
HUMAN BODY AFTER DEATH ,, BY CHEM¬ 
ICAL OR OTHER KNOWN PROCESSES; 


TOGETHER WITH A FULL DESCRIPTION OF CHEMICALS EMPLOYED IN 
EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES, BY THE MOST EMINENT CHEM¬ 
ISTS AND PROFESSORS; ALSO, SUCH ANATOMICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL 
AND CHEMICAL FACTS, AS ARE NECESSARY TO BE UNDERSTOOD, 
IN ORDER THAT SCIENTIFIC MANIPULATIONS MAY BE FULLY CAR¬ 
RIED OUT. 


BY 

M. LESSLEY. 


TOLEDO, OHIO: 
1884. 



















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